Unraveling the Links among Witnessing Interparental Conflict,Hopelessness,Psychological Dating Violence Victimization,and Adult Depressive Symptoms

Abstract

Witnessing interparental conflict in childhood predicts psychological dating violence victimization (PDVV) in adulthood. As found in previous studies, PDVV and hopelessness are associated with depression. However, the associations among these four variables have not been explored in detail. The present study, therefore, examined the association between perceived interparental conflict and depression in adulthood and whether PDVV and hopelessness might operate as sequential mechanisms accounting for the association. Participants (N = 283; M_age = 23.37 years, SD = 4.04 years) in romantic relationships completed measures of perceived interparental conflict, PDVV, hopelessness, and depression. The perceived interparental conflict was related to PDVV and depression but not to hopelessness in adulthood. Moreover, the association between witnessing interparental conflict and depression was serially mediated via PDVV and hopelessness. The results are discussed in regard to previous research, and their implications for future research are presented.

Keywords

depression hopelessness interparental conflict psychological dating violence victimization sequential mediation

Conflict is an unavoidable part of every relationship and, in romantic relationships, may lead to intimate partner violence (IPV) which is defined as “any behavior within an intimate relationship (married, unmarried, and live-in) that causes physical, psychological, or sexual harm to those in that relationship” (Patra et al., 2018, p. 494). Interparental conflict has been shown to negatively impact children’s and adolescents’ overall well-being (Harold & Sellers, 2018; Lucas-Thompson et al., 2017, 2020).

To explain the relationship between interparental conflict and child outcomes, Grych and Fincham (1990) offered the cognitive-contextual model. According to this model, interparental conflict affects children’s adjustment via the child’s appraisal of the event, namely, perceived threat to the self, reasons for the conflict, and views about one’s ability to deal with the problem. This appraisal is directly related to negative feelings such as fear, sadness, self-blame, and guilt (Fosco et al., 2007). Children who have been exposed to interparental conflict or violence face a variety of difficulties, including emotional dysregulation (Schwarz et al., 2012), internalizing and externalizing problems (Fosco & Grych, 2007), self-blame (Fear et al., 2009), lower academic achievement (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010), lower self-esteem (Clements et al., 2014), and unstable relationships with their peers (Schwarz et al., 2012).

As a widely recognized risk factor for psychological maladjustment both in childhood and adolescence, interparental conflict is also assumed to carry its effects well into later years. Indeed, there are data to show that interparental conflict is related to depression (Johnson et al., 2001; Kumar & Mattanah, 2018; Tucker et al., 2013), psychological distress (Özdemir & Sağkal, 2019), and loneliness (Kumar & Mattanah, 2018) during adulthood. However, the relationship between interparental conflict and adult adjustment is more complicated than in childhood and adolescence. Current evidence suggests that childhood adversities, particularly when combined with recent or ongoing negative life stressors, can be associated with poorer mental health outcomes (Horn et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022). According to the cognitive-contextual model, psychological well-being is influenced by one’s appraisal of their capacity to deal with stressful life events, particularly if exposed to interparental conflict as children. Therefore, exposure to recent adverse experiences during adulthood in the context of close relationships (i.e., dating victimization) and the person’s lack of belief in their capacity to cope with the situation may play a significant role in the association between experiencing interparental conflict in childhood and mental health outcomes, especially given that the effects of adverse childhood experiences are known to be more complex in adults. As a result, the current study investigated two mechanisms that might account for the relationship between perceived interparental conflict and depression in adulthood, namely, psychological dating violence victimization (PDVV) and hopelessness.

Perceptions of Interparental Conflict and Adult Depression

Many negative family experiences during childhood and adolescence, including chaotic and dysfunctional family environments, are associated with lower levels of well-being in adulthood (e.g., Mosley-Johnson et al., 2019; Richards et al., 2019; Reinherz et al., 2003). However, research on the association between early interparental conflict and later depression symptoms has yielded conflicting results. For instance, Turner and Kopiec (2006) discovered that interparental conflict is related to depression in younger adults through current stressful relationships with both parents and romantic partners, as well as self-esteem factors, but even after controlling for these variables, interparental conflict had a direct effect on depressive symptoms in young adults. According to Picinich (2022), higher levels of interparental conflict throughout the early years of life are associated with higher levels of depression in teenagers. Similarly to this, Alves et al. (2020) reported that the degree of perceived interparental conflict was a predictive factor of depressive symptoms in emerging adults. In their longitudinal study, Herrenkohl et al. (2009) reported no significant direct effect of exposure to family conflict during childhood and adolescence and depressive symptoms in adulthood. However, interparental conflict increased vulnerability to later negative life stressors (e.g., breakup or divorce, loss of a loved one, victim of a crime), raising the likelihood of adult depressive symptoms. These researchers concluded that interparental conflict might make people more susceptible to other stressful life events, thereby indirectly contributing to depression later in life.

Perceptions of Interparental Conflict and PDVV

According to Gelles (1980), growing up in a violent home is one of the possible antecedents of family violence. Supporting the premise, previous research has demonstrated that children who witness their parents’ conflict are more likely to become not only perpetrators of violence but also victims of violence in adulthood (Palazzolo et al., 2010; Rivera & Fincham, 2015; Solanke, 2018; Toplu-Demirtaş & Hatipoğlu-Sümer, 2021). Witnessing interparental conflict is also related to experiencing psychological abuse in romantic relationships (Black et al., 2010; Islam et al., 2014; Palazzolo et al., 2010). In their study, Aboagye et al. (2022) found that women witnessing interparental conflict in their childhood experienced more physical, psychological, and sexual violence in their adult romantic relationships.

According to Kinsfogel and Grych (2004), one of the challenges of having satisfying relationships is resolving problems that inevitably emerge in romantic relationships. Adolescents’ prior experiences with conflict resolution during interparental disputes lead to the use of similar behavior in their own romantic relationships. The perception of violent or abusive behavior as justifiable is one of the cognitive mechanisms that links interparental conflict and dating violence, and witnessing interparental conflict is related to perceiving aggression as acceptable in romantic relationships (Toplu-Demirtaş & Hatipoğlu-Sümer, 2021). Similarly, Karlsson et al. (2016) found that teen dating violence victimization was linked to both witnessing interparental violence and perceiving violence as acceptable in romantic relationships. Other studies have also suggested that children who witness their parents’ conflict are more likely to be victims or perpetrators of violence in their romantic relationships in adulthood (Kalmuss, 1984; Palazzolo et al., 2010). Witnessing interparental conflict is also related to experiencing psychological abuse in romantic relationships (Black et al., 2010; Islam et al., 2014; Palazzolo et al., 2010).

PDVV and Hopelessness

Hopelessness is expecting future adverse outcomes in many aspects of life and feeling powerless to change those outcomes (Abramson et al., 1989). Considerable attention has focused on the relationship between hopelessness and suicidality in intimate partner relationships (e.g., Muyan & Chang, 2019; Till et al., 2017). Despite this, few studies have investigated the link between PDVV and hopelessness. Kaslow et al. (1998) and Lamis et al. (2013) found a robust link between hopelessness and psychological violence: higher levels of nonphysical violence in relationships are related to greater hopelessness. Similarly, Gutowski et al. (2023) found a significant association between PDVV and hopelessness. Some victims/survivors experience more hopelessness due to their assumption that they will never be able to live a typical everyday life or have good non-abusive relationships in the future (Messing et al., 2012). Victims/survivors were unable to seek treatment and felt trapped in their romantic relationships due to hopelessness (Beaulaurier et al., 2005; Gutowski et al., 2023), which is directly associated with depression (Abramson et al., 1989; Messing et al., 2012).

Hopelessness and Depression

The relationship between hopelessness and depressive symptoms, as well as their joint contribution to other future severe problems (i.e., major depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts), has been documented in much previous research (e.g., Lew et al., 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2018; Victor & Klonsky, 2014). As previously stated, hopelessness is part of the cognitive triad related to depressive symptoms (Beck et al., 1993) and is defined as having negative expectations for the future, strong beliefs about future adverse consequences, and little faith in one’s ability to handle future challenges (Beck et al., 1974). Researchers emphasize that hopelessness is a critical determinant of depressive symptoms, and it has even been proposed as a subtype of depression (hopelessness depression; Abramson et al., 1989).

Lamis et al. (2013) found that IPV was associated with increased depressive symptomology and hopelessness and suggested that examining the association of IPV with hopelessness and depressive symptoms may be helpful in preventative efforts to eliminate worse outcomes. Similarly, Scher and Resick (2005) found that hopelessness is a risk factor for IPV victims developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after the assault. They also showed that hopelessness leads to PTSD via its shared variance with depression. Due to the close association between depression and hopelessness in developing future severe mental health problems following a traumatic event like IPV victimization, these researchers highlighted the importance of addressing hopelessness and depressive cognitions in treating IPV survivors.

Perceptions of Interparental Conflict and Hopelessness

There is a robust association between adverse childhood experiences such as harsh parenting, domestic violence, physical punishment, and hopelessness (e.g., Haatainen et al., 2003). Grych and Fincham (1990), for example, stated that children make attributions for marital conflict, which may include self, other people, or external causes. To the extent that children believe these causes are stable (more likely to continue in the future) or global (affecting other areas as well), this can strengthen their perception that the marriage is in turmoil and make them feel hopeless. There are also studies focusing on the association between perceived interparental conflict and hopelessness (e.g., Haj-Yahia, 2001; Mitchell & Rosenthal, 1992). For example, Haj-Yahia (2001) showed that witnessing parental physical and psychological aggression, and violence between parents predicts adolescent hopelessness. However, few studies have focused on the long-term influence of witnessing interparental conflict in childhood on young adults’ and adults’ hopelessness. In her longitudinal study, Iratzoqui (2015) found that child maltreatment, including witnessing interparental conflict, could indirectly influence the risk of exposure to IPV in adulthood by facilitating hopelessness and depression.

PDVV and Depression

IPV has been related to poorer mental health (Devries et al., 2013; Dutton et al., 2006), including depression, PTSD, and anxiety (e.g., Houry et al., 2006; Lagdon et al., 2014). Moreover, there is a well-documented relationship between psychological IPV and depression (e.g., Calvete et al., 2008; Coker et al., 2002; Lamis et al., 2013; Wong et al., 2011). In addition, Toplu-Demirtaş et al. (2022), in their longitudinal research, further revealed that cyber dating abuse victimization was related to higher levels of depressive symptoms 12 weeks later, but the converse was not the case. Houry et al. (2006) showed that psychological, physical, and sexual intimate partner victimization and depressive symptoms are significantly correlated, and depressive symptoms are also associated with suicidality. In another study, Houry et al. (2005) found that victims/survivors of IPV with depressive symptoms are more likely to attempt suicide or self-harming behaviors.

The Current Study

Depression is more common in adulthood than in other stages of life (World Health Organization, 2017), but the factors contributing to this situation are more complicated compared to other life stages. Adverse family experiences in early childhood, particularly conflicts between parents, are a significant risk factor for depression in adulthood. Although some studies have found that this conflict is directly associated with adult depression, the existing literature is far from definitive, emphasizing the need to consider potential factors that might mediate the relationship (e.g., Herrenkohl et al., 2009; Turner & Kopiec, 2006).

As Grych and Fincham (1990) argued, cognitive aspects should be included when determining the association between interparental conflict and later-life adjustment issues. That is, negative appraisals of interparental conflict and a lower expectation of one’s ability to cope with the conflict may be connected with hopelessness.

Although hopelessness is linked to adult depression, it is unclear how it leads to depression when combined with a current life stressor such as IPV. Therefore, the goal of this study is to investigate the association between interparental conflict and depression, as well as the potential serial mediator effects of PDVV and hopelessness. As depicted in Figure 1, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Direct Effects

Hypothesis 1 (H1). Perceptions of interparental conflict will be positively associated with depression.

Hypothesis 2 (H2). Perceptions of interparental conflict will be positively associated with PDVV.

Hypothesis 3 (H3). PDVV will be positively associated with hopelessness.

Hypothesis 4 (H4). Hopelessness will be positively associated with depression.

Hypothesis 5 (H5). Perceptions of interparental conflict will be positively associated with hopelessness.

Hypothesis 6 (H6). PDVV will be positively associated with depression.

Indirect Effect

Hypothesis 7 (H7). Perceptions of interparental conflict will be indirectly related to depression through the serial mediators of PDVV and hopelessness (see Figure 1).

Method

Participants

Data were gathered from 335 participants who voluntarily participated in the study. Participants in this study were conveniently recruited, with the inclusion criteria of being at least 18 years and currently in a romantic relationship. Data were collected via Google Forms, where we posted the survey link on an online platform (Instagram). We deleted 52 married cases from the dataset as our focus was on dating cases, resulting in a sample of 283 participants aged 18 to 43 years (M = 23.37, SD = 4.04).

Out of 283 participants, most of the participants indicated their gender as female (87.3%, n = 247), followed by male (10.6%, n = 30), and some identified as non-binary (2.1%, n = 6). The majority of the participants (78.4%, n = 222) identified themselves as heterosexual, followed by bisexual (11%, n = 31), pansexual (1.8%, n = 5), lesbian (1.1%, n = 3), gay (0.7%, n = 2), and some participants (7.1%, n = 20) picked the option that their sexual orientation was not one of these. Most participants resided in urban areas (90.1%) and had a dating relationship (85.5%) during data collection. The rest were engaged (6.4%) or did not define their relationship status with their partner (8.1%). The majority of participants reported their parents’ perceived socioeconomic status (SES) as middle (53.7%) and upper middle (33.2%) and were currently undergraduate students (76.3%). Most participants reported that their parents were married (80.9%, n = 229), followed by divorced (9.2%, n = 26), married again with someone else (6.7%, n = 19), living separately (2.5%, n = 7), and married again with each other (0.7%, n = 2).

Measures

Demographics

We generated a demographic data form to collect participants’ personal (i.e., age, gender, sexual orientation, SES) and relational data (i.e., romantic relationship status, parents’ relationship status).

Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale-Conflict Properties Subscale

We measured perceived interparental conflict using the Turkish version (Ulu & Fışıloğlu, 2004) of the 19 items (e.g., “My parents still act mean after they have had an argument,” “My parents have broken or thrown things during an argument”) comprising the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict-Conflict Properties Subscale (CPIC—Conflict Properties Subscale; Grych et al., 1992). Participants responded on a 3-point Likert-type scale (False = 0, Sort of True = 1, True = 2; Min = 0, Max = 38), and some were reversed items. Özdemir and Sağkal (2019) did reliability and validity evaluations and found that CPIC—Conflict Properties Subscale is reliable and valid for the young adult population. In the present study, Cronbach’s α was .94.

The Revised Conflict Tactics Scale—Psychological Subscale

We used the Turkish version (Aba & Kulakaç, 2016) of Straus et al.’s (1996) 8 items (e.g., “My partner threatened to hit or throw something at me,” “My partner insulted and or swore at me”) of the Psychological Subscale of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-R) to measure psychological IPV. Participants responded on an 8-point Likert-type scale (once in the past year = 1, twice in the past year = 2, 3–5 times in the past year = 3, 6–10 times in the past year = 4, 11–20 times in the past year = 5, more than 20 times in the past year = 6, not in the past year, but it did happen before = 0, this has never happened = 0; Min = 0, Max = 48), with higher scores indicating a higher level of psychological violence. In the present study, Cronbach’s α was 0.74.

The Beck Hopelessness Scale. We used the Turkish version (Seber et al., 1993) of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (Beck et al., 1974) to measure hopelessness. The scale has 20 items (e.g., “I don’t expect to get what I really want,” “The future seems vague and uncertain to me”) with “Yes” and “No” options (Yes = 1, No = 0; Min = 0, Max = 20), and some of the items are reversed items. In the present study, Cronbach’s α was 0.88.

Depression Anxiety Stress Scale—Depression Subscale

We gauged depression with the Turkish form (Yılmaz et al., 2017) of 7 items (e.g., “I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all,” “1 found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things”) of the Depression Anxiety Stress—Depression Subscale (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Participants responded on a 4-point Likert-type scale (Did not apply to me at all = 0, Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time = 1, Applied to me a considerable degree, or a good part of the time = 2, Applied to me very much, or most of the time = 3; Min = 0, Max = 21). In the present study, Cronbach’s α was .85.

Data Collection Procedure

We obtained ethical approval from the Human Subjects Ethics Committee before data collection. Then, we collected the data from voluntary participants through Google Form sharing on social media and groups. Completing the survey took roughly 15 to 20 minutes. We gave no incentives for participation.

Data Analysis

Using the chi-square test, we began data analysis by exploring gender differences in PDVV. We then conducted correlational analyses to document the associations between our independent variable (perceptions of interparental conflict), two mediating variables (PDVV and hopelessness), and our dependent variable (depression). Finally, we tested our six direct hypotheses and one indirect hypothesis via the PROCESS Macro Version 4.1 (Hayes, 2018; Model 6, serial mediation with two mediators) and employed bootstrapping to estimate direct, indirect, and total effects.

Results

Frequency Analysis

We first examined the frequency of PDVV by gender (1 = women, 2 = men, 3 = nonbinary). We dichotomized the responses into 0 (no experience of psychological violence in the past 12 months) and 1 (experience of at least one instance of psychological violence in the past 12 months), consistent with the scoring of the CTS-R (Straus et al., 1996).

Regardless of gender, most participants (n = 200; 70.7%) indicated having experienced at least one instance of psychological dating violence within the past year. There were no differences among genders in victimization, χ² (2, n = 283) = 1.434, p > .05, Φ = .071). The prevalence rates of PDVV for women, men, and non-binary persons were 69.6, 80.0, and 66.7%, respectively.

Correlational Analysis

As shown in Table 1, all the correlations among study variables were statistically significant except the one between perceptions of interparental conflict and hopelessness, r = .113, p > .05. Depression was positively related to perceptions of interparental conflict, r = .136, p < .05, PDVV, r = .283, p < .01, and hopelessness, r = .678, p < .01.

Table 1.

Correlations Between the Study Variables (N = 283).

Variables	1	2	3	4
1. Perception of interparental conflict	1	.136*	.113	.130*
2. PDVV		1	.253**	.283**
3. Hopelessness			1	.678**
4. Depression				1
M	17.95	4.08	6.12	12.76
SD	10.41	5.12	4.26	4.46
α	.94	.74	.88	.85

Note. PDVV = psychological dating violence victimization; SD = standard deviation.

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

Mediation Analyses: Direct Effects

We used the PROCESS macro (Version 4.1 Hayes, 2018) to test direct and indirect hypotheses in our serial mediation model. This required the use of three separate regression models (please see Table 2 and Figure 1), one for each of the outcomes (mediator 1 [PDVV], mediator 2 [hopelessness], and dependent variable [depression]). The first model contained the associations between perceptions of interparental conflict and PDVV. In the second, hopelessness was regressed on both perceptions of interparental conflict and PDVV. Finally, in the third regression, perceptions of interparental conflict, PDVV, and hopelessness were all included as predictors of depression.

Table 2.

Multiple Regression Models Regarding the Significance Test of Serial Mediation With Two Mediators.

Predictors	Model 1 (Outcome = Psychological Dating Violence Victimization)			Model 2 (Outcome = Hopelessness)			Model 3 (Outcome = Depression)
	B	LLCI	ULCI	B	LLCI	ULCI	B	LLCI	ULCI
Perceptions of interparental conflict	.067*	.010	.124	.033	−.014	.080	.018	−.019	.055
PDVV				.202***	.106	.397	.100*	.022	.177
Hopelessness							.675***	.582	.767

Note. Model 1: R² = .02, F(1, 281) = 5.278, p < .05; Model 2: R² = .07, F(2, 280) = 10.612, p < .001; Model 3: R² = .48, F(3, 279) = 84.189, p < .001. The values in bold correspond to the six proposed paths of the meditational model. LLCI = lower level of 95% confidence interval; ULCI = upper level of 95% confidence interval; PDVV = psychological dating violence victimization.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The first model (outcome = PDVV) was significant, F (1, 281) = 5.278, R² = .02. As Table 2 illustrates, a significant positive association was found between perceptions of interparental conflict and PDVV, B = .067, t (281) = 2.297 p < .05. Thus, our second direct hypothesis was supported. Model 2 (outcome = hopelessness) was significant, F (2, 280) = 10.612, R² = .07. In Model 2, we found a significant association between PDVV and hopelessness, B = .202, t (280) = 4.168, p < .001. Our third direct hypothesis, therefore, was supported. However, the association between perceptions of interparental conflict and hopelessness was not significant, B = .033; t (280) = 1.378, p > .05. Hypothesis five, therefore, was not supported. Finally, our last model (outcome = depression) was significant, F (2, 279) = 84.189, R² = .48. In Model 3, that regressed depression on perceptions of interparental conflict, PDVV, and hopelessness, a significant association emerged between PDVV and depression, B = .100, t (279) = 2.532, p < .05 and between hopelessness and depression, B = .675, t (279) = 14.331, p < .001. Our fourth and sixth hypotheses, therefore, were supported. However, the association between perceptions of interparental conflict and depression was not significant, B = .018, t (279) = .951, p > .05. Thus, the first hypothesis was not supported. In short, four of the six proposed direct effect hypotheses were supported.

Mediation Analyses: Total and Indirect Effects

The total effect of perceptions of interparental conflict on depression was significant in the model, B = .056, p < .05. As illustrated in Table 3, the indirect effect (i.e., perceptions of interparental conflict → PDVV → hopelessness → depression) was significant (95% confidence interval [.001, .020]), providing evidence for the proposed serial mediation model. Consistent with our indirect hypothesis, perceptions of interparental conflict were serially related to the experience of psychological dating violence and hopelessness and, in turn, to the likelihood of depression. For the other indirect paths, please see Table 3.

Table 3.

Standardized Bootstrapped Indirect Effects.

Path	β	Boot SE	Boot LLCI	Boot ULCI
Perceptions of interparental conflict → PDVV → depression	.007	.004	.001	.015
Perceptions of interparental conflict → hopelessness → depression	.022	.016	−.009	.054
Perceptions of interparental conflict → PDVV → hopelessness → depression	.009	.005	.002	.020

Note. Reported bootstrapped CIs are the bias-corrected 95% CI of estimates resulting from 10,000 bootstrapped samples. Total N is 283. CI = confidence interval; SE = standard error; PDVV = psychological dating violence victimization.

Discussion

According to prior research (e.g., Alves et al., 2020; Herrenkohl et al., 2009; Turner & Copiec, 2006), family conflict can have a direct and long-term effect on depression. Exposure to interparental conflict may affect one’s perceptions of what constitutes appropriate behavior in romantic relationships, according to the intergenerational transmission of violence (ITV) theory. As a result, these experiences may make people more susceptible to later romantic relationship difficulties (i.e., IPV), which could harm their mental health. The present study was conducted to extend the field of research by examining the association between perceived interparental conflict and depression through PDVV and hopelessness within the framework of the transmission of violence across generations.

Our first hypothesis was not supported. We found no direct effect of perceiving interparental conflict on self-reported depression. This result is similar to two previous studies (Herrenkohl et al., 2009; Roubinov & Luecken, 2013). Roubinov and Luecken (2013), in highlighting that witnessing parental conflict was not directly associated with adult depression, found that children who experienced parental conflict utilized three coping strategies: denial of the parental conflict, hope that the problem resolves itself, and fleeing away from the conflict and its reminders. These poor coping strategies lead to adult depression in children rather than the perception of family conflict per se. Another possible explanation might be that, as Park et al. (2014) suggested, seeing family conflict reduces overall psychological well-being without contributing to clinical depression.

The data supported our second hypothesis that perceptions of interparental conflict were positively associated with PDVV. This result is consistent with earlier findings (Fergusson et al., 2008; Simon & Furman, 2010; Toplu-Demirtaş & Hatipoğlu-Sümer, 2021). As Black et al. (2009) discussed, within the framework of ITV, growing up in a home where parents’ conflict may reemerge in adult romantic relationships through exposure to psychological violence, as represented in our study. Similarly, Fosco et al. (2007) noted that witnessing interparental conflict shapes children’s perceptions of relationships. When they see abusive relationships between their parents, they may expect and search for similar characteristics in their adult relationships, like it must be that way since they only see this kind of relationship. Similarly, Solanke (2018) concluded that seeing parental violence may result in expecting a similar violent cycle in their own romantic relationships.

Our third hypothesis was that PDVV would be positively associated with hopelessness, and the data supported this hypothesis. This finding is consistent with Lamis et al.’s (2013) and Gutowski et al.’s (2023) studies, which also found a robust link between PDVV and hopelessness. As Till et al. (2017) noted, people experience a higher level of hopelessness when they cannot find ways of ending conflicts in their unhappy relationships, which corresponds to psychologically abusive relationships in this study. Another explanation might be that because the association between interparental conflict and PDVV in our study was significant and positive, it is likely that participants were not exposed to (their parents did not model) constructive strategies for dealing with interpersonal conflict. As a result, participants in our study might underestimate their abilities to deal with future challenges or view their future through a negative lens.

Our fourth hypothesis was that hopelessness would be positively associated with depression, and the data supported this hypothesis. The study generated results that corroborate the findings of much earlier research in this area; hopelessness is a typical indicator of depressive symptomatology (e.g., Moore et al., 2021; Ribeiro et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2005). As Abramson et al. (1989) discussed, expecting the future to bring negatives in all aspects of life and believing that one lacks the strength to overcome those negatives makes people hopeless and can result in depression.

Our fifth hypothesis that perceptions of interparental conflict would be positively associated with hopelessness was not supported. Although the association between these variables was in a positive direction, it failed to reach statistical significance. This result is similar to Iratzoqui’s (2015) result: witnessing parental conflict was not directly but indirectly related to hopelessness. As discussed in their study (Iratzoqui, 2015), children witnessing familial conflict try to cope with that conflict via drug and alcohol usage and leaving home. Therefore, using unhealthy ways of coping leads them to hopelessness. In other words, the lack of an association between these variables could be because interparental conflict does not produce hopelessness but using dysfunctional coping mechanisms in dealing with familial conflict does.

Our sixth hypothesis was that PDVV would be positively associated with depression, and our results supported this hypothesis. This result is consistent with those of Coker et al. (2002), who reported that higher levels of psychological partner violence affected victims’ mental health, leading to depression. As discussed by Wong et al. (2011), victims who do not find the strength within themselves to end psychologically abusive relationships may experience depression. Coker et al. (2002) reported that women victims/survivors of psychological IPV had a higher risk of experiencing depression than men.

Our seventh hypothesis that PDVV and hopelessness would serially mediate the association between perceptions of interparental conflict and depression was supported. The findings showed that exposure to interparental conflict might affect later depressed symptoms via proximal negative experiences and hopelessness. As discussed by Herrenkolh et al. (2009), the emotional struggle of growing up in a family of conflict might be related to the inability to cope with stressful life events in later years due to poor stress management and unknowingly exposing oneself to potentially self-defeating, yet familiar (hostile) events. In other words, it may be related to an individual’s vulnerability to later risks due to risk exposure earlier in life. Similarly, Turner and Kopiec (2006) described how adolescents might relate to their partners as modeled by their parents, making them less capable of establishing supportive partner relationships and more likely to experience distress in those relationships. These researchers also asserted that interparental conflict is a chronic stressor that undermines children’s self-esteem and sense of mastery. Poor self-esteem and a lack of personal control become ingrained in self-concepts that persist throughout young adulthood, which, in turn, is related to depressive symptoms. As mentioned, hopelessness is a cognitive framework associated with negative future expectations, strong views about potential adverse outcomes, and limited faith in one’s ability to deal with future obstacles (Beck et al., 1974). As a result, PDVV and hopelessness may explain the relationship between perceiving interparental conflict and depression because prior experiences with conflict may make one more susceptible to later victimization and result in depression because one’s self-concept and belief in one’s ability to cope with recent stressful events is harmed.

Limitations, Research Implications, and Conclusion

This study has several limitations. In documenting them, we offer suggestions that can be utilized for future research. First, we used a convenience sampling method. Furthermore, we conducted the study in the context of Turkish culture. In addition, most of our participants were female. Thus, future studies are recommended to replicate the study with people from diverse cultures and backgrounds and more proportionally equal representation of all genders with the use of random sampling methods to increase the generalizability of the results. Since the instruments used were self-report measures, they are subject to socially desirable responses. Also, data on perceived interparental conflict were gathered retrospectively, and collecting retrospective data has the risk of yielding distorted data (recall bias). Dyadic data from parents and children might be fruitful in alleviating recall bias. Finally, we recommend longitudinal research to provide stronger evidence for temporal relations implied by the model studied.

Furthermore, PTSD, suicidality, and anxiety are associated with IPV (Lagdon et al., 2014; Till et al., 2017). Further research, which takes those additional mental health symptoms into account, will need to be undertaken. The current study only considered IPV victimization, and further studies regarding the role of IPV perpetration in ITV would be worthwhile. Similarly, examining sexual and physical violence is suggested since this study only focused on psychological violence.

Despite several limitations, this study adds to our understanding of the impact of exposure to interpersonal violence on the mental health of adults who have experienced PDVV and hopelessness. Considering the results, the roots of depression can be traced back to earlier negative experiences in the family, which also may become apparent in current romantic relationships as victimization and hopelessness. One implication is that mental health experts can help by making people aware of how disagreements are managed or resolved in the home in which they grew up. IPV survivors can also be supported by addressing their cognitions related to hopelessness.

In the current research, we provided data consistent with the view that witnessing interparental conflicts may translate into adult risk for depression through the mechanisms of PDVV and hopelessness. Identification of these mechanisms has the potential to advance understanding of the link between interparental conflict and depression in adulthood and points to possible targets for intervention.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

ORCID iDs

Hande Özkan

Gizem Öztemür

Author Biographies

Hande Özkan is a research assistant in the Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance at MEF University. She is pursuing a master’s degree in Guidance and Psychological Counseling at Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Her research interests include gender issues, romantic relationships, intimate partner violence, the cycle of violence, and marital satisfaction.

Gizem Öztemür, MA, is a school counselor in the elementary school at Çakabey Private Schools, Turkey. She is pursuing a PhD in guidance and psychological counseling at Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Her research interests include executive functioning and behavioral and emotional regulation in children, and gender issues.

Ezgi Toplu-Demirtaş, associate director and 2019 Fulbright visiting scholar from Turkey to the Department of Family and Child Sciences at Florida State University Florida, USA, is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance at MEF University. Her research focuses on gender, dating violence (DV), psychological DV, cyber DV, dating infidelity, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex issues, adult attachment, and multicultural issues in counseling. Currently, her primary research interest relates to bridging the gap between research and practice in DV. With interest in mind, she has been busy developing inclusive, protective, and preventive approaches to promote safe, happy, and healthy dating relationships.

Frank D. Fincham, PhD, is an eminent scholar and director of Florida State University Family Institute. His goal is to understand cognitive processes involved in conflict, forgiveness, and prayer in close relationships. He also investigates emerging adulthood, focusing particularly on school burnout, hooking up, and friends with benefits. Recently, he has integrated hemodynamic and cardiac functioning into his research to understand how the processes he studies affect health.

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