The Long Arm of Childhood Bullying Victimization: Associations with Social Isolation,Gender Differences and Depression in Later Life

Abstract

The association between childhood bullying victimization and depression has been well-explored among young adults, but little is known about whether this relationship persists into later life stages, specifically during middle-aged and older phases. Moreover, the intricate mechanisms underpinning this association and the potential existence of gender differences within this context remain inadequately elucidated. To address this gap in knowledge, this study aims to investigate the association between childhood bullying victimization and depression in later life, with a focus on exploring the mediating role of social isolation and the moderating roles of gender. A nationally representative sample of 5,070 individuals (mean age = 61.02, SD = 9.48; male = 55%) was drawn from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. By employing the bootstrapping analysis method, the mediating role of social isolation was examined, and the moderating role of gender was tested through the generation of interaction items. The results reveal a significant association between childhood bullying victimization and severe depression in later life. Additionally, social isolation plays a mediating role in this association between childhood bullying victimization and social isolation, and the association between social isolation and depression, as well as the relationship between social isolation and depression, are both moderated by gender, presenting stronger effects for female groups than for male groups. However, no moderating role of gender is found in terms of the direct association between childhood bullying victimization and depression. These findings highlight the fact that childhood bullying is not only a problem in the immediate term but also a concern that affects individuals across entire life course. This study has implications for healthcare in proactively investigating, diagnosing, and treating depression by inquiring about childhood bullying victimization experiences. Furthermore, intervention policies that aim to reduce social isolation may be particularly beneficial in mitigating the negative associations, especially for female individuals.

Keywords

bullying victimization mental illness social disconnection age

Introduction

In light of China’s ongoing demographic aging, individuals situated in the middle-aged and older life stages, generally defined as those aged 45 years and above, face a heightened risk of experiencing depression in later life (Guo et al., 2021). Findings from the national survey in China underscore the substantial prevalence of depressive symptoms, exceeding 30% among individuals aged 45 and older, thereby exerting significant pressure on the healthcare system (Jiang & Jiang, 2022; Luo et al., 2021). Given the significance of this mental health issue, it is imperative to gain a comprehensive understanding and address its underlying causes effectively. While numerous studies have explored the predictors of depression in middle-aged and older adults, focusing on psychosocial and physiological factors (Luo et al., 2021; Webb et al., 2018; Yang & Li, 2020), there remains a gap in research regarding the connections between adverse childhood experiences and depression among this specific population from a life-course perspective. The potential existence of such relationships suggests that intervention policies aimed at reducing depression in middle-aged and older adults should not solely consider current factors present in their middle-aged and old life stages. Instead, a more holistic approach should be adopted, which takes into account individuals’ experiences during their early childhood. By acknowledging the impact of adverse childhood experiences, we can better tailor targeted interventions.

Childhood bullying victimization is indeed a prevalent and distressing type of adverse childhood experience that typically occurs during individuals’ early childhood years, particularly at schooldays, with an age range of 6 to 12 years old (Smith, 1997). Its impact is concerning, with estimated rates of 15%–30% among children in western countries (Maynard et al., 2016). Notably, the prevalence of childhood bullying victimization is relatively high in China, affecting 54.9% of students (Zhu & Chan, 2015). Consequently, the Chinese government has recognized the significance of this issue and invested substantial resources to address it (Chen et al., 2023). The effects of childhood bullying victimization go beyond immediate consequences and have long-term associations with individuals’ mental health (Jiang & Jiang, 2022). For example, studies have demonstrated that childhood bullying victimization is related to depression among children and adolescents (Choi et al., 2021; Jiang & Jiang, 2023) as well as in young adults (Lee, 2021; Lereya et al., 2015). However, whether this long-term association extends into individuals’ later life and presents negative relationships with depression in middle-aged and older adults remains largely unknown.

Besides, the potential mechanisms of childhood bullying victimization’s long-term relationships with depression among middle and older adults are also not well explored. In terms of the mediating mechanism, social isolation is a huge risk factor for depression, and childhood bullying victimization may lead to severe social isolation in the middle-aged and elderly population by damaging their initial interpersonal abilities and stress response regulation systems (Jung & Lee, 2019; Subramaniam et al., 2020). Regarding moderating mechanisms, the “gender paradox of bullying” phenomenon suggests that women may experience more pronounced negative consequences related to bullying compared to men (Tiet et al., 2001). This phenomenon may also manifest in the long-term associations between childhood bullying victimization and depression, as well as social isolation. Therefore, adopting a life-course perspective, this study not only focuses on examining the direct relationship between childhood bullying victimization and depression among middle and older adults but also seeks to explore the potential mediating role of social isolation and the moderating roles of gender. These efforts will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between childhood bullying victimization and mental health in later life.

Childhood Bullying Victimization and Depression in Later Life

Exposure to childhood bullying indicates that individuals lack sufficient and high-quality interpersonal relationships to maintain mental health (Bjereld, 2018; Yan et al., 2022). In addition to the immediate association between childhood bullying victimization and children or adolescents’ depression, recent research interest lies in exploring the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and adults’ depression (Lee, 2021; Lereya et al., 2015). From the life-course perspective, the cumulative disadvantage hypothesis holds the view that individuals’ disadvantages in the early stage of childhood will accumulate and have negative effects throughout subsequent life stages (Dannefer, 2003). In general, cumulative disadvantage can be elucidated as the systematic proclivity for interindividual divergence in a specified characteristic, including but not limited to poverty, adverse childhood experiences, poor health status, and domestic issues over the course of time (Dannefer, 2003). Specifically, damaged interpersonal abilities at the early stage of childhood may be like “scars” to feel pain continuously in victims’ whole life and finally present long-term relationships with their depression in the subsequent life stages. Relevant empirical studies have confirmed these long-term associations with depression with young adults as the main research group (Lee, 2021; Lereya et al., 2015). However, to our knowledge, very limited studies examine the long-term associations between childhood bullying victimization and middle and older adults’ depression. It should be notable that later life is the final stage of individuals’ life course, and middle and older adults are prone to experience more cumulative disadvantages compared with young adults (Dannefer, 2003; Jiang & Jiang, 2022). Besides, evidence also presents that suffering from adverse childhood experiences significantly increases older adults’ depression (Chen et al., 2022; Jiang & Jiang, 2022). Considering bullying victimization is also a typical type of adverse childhood experience, it is reasonable to assume that it associates with more severe depression later in life. Therefore, this study proposes hypothesis 1:

Hypothesis 1: Childhood bullying victimization is positively associated with depression in later life.

Mediating Role of Social Isolation

Social isolation is commonly defined as a state characterized by a lack of social relationship size, frequency, and diversity (De Jong Gierveld & Havens, 2004). Among older adults in Western countries, social isolation has been found to be prevalent, with estimates as high as 43% (Nicholson, 2012). In the Chinese context, this issue is particularly pronounced due to the widespread phenomenon of “empty-nest elderly” resulting from rapid societal changes (Tang et al., 2021), which refers to the social phenomenon wherein adult children or grandchildren migrate from rural to urban areas or from the Midwest to the East of China for work or education, leaving their elderly parents or grandparents living alone. While previous research has predominantly focused on the association between functional health (e.g., cognitive function and physical function) on middle and older adults’ social isolation (Luo et al., 2021), emerging evidence suggests that childhood bullying victimization may also play a role in predicting social isolation in later life (Burns et al., 2022; Vederhus et al., 2022).

Generally, childhood bullying victimization may contribute to middle and older adults’ social isolation through two pathways. First, childhood is the crucial period for individuals to develop initial interpersonal abilities (Jung & Lee, 2019). However, exposure to childhood bullying victimization disrupts this learning process and damages the reserves of interpersonal abilities (Barile et al., 2015). Inadequate interpersonal abilities further cause individuals unable to obtain sufficient and high-quality social relationships in their future life (Jiang & Jiang, 2023), finally increasing the possibility of trapping in severe social isolation in later life. Second, childhood bullying victimization may also damage individuals’ stress response regulation systems (Jiang & Jiang, 2022; Subramaniam et al., 2020), leading to the adoption of negative coping strategies such as avoidance and withdrawal when faced with stressful events in the future (Bjereld, 2018). This can lead to a lack of investment in maintaining social relationships (Smorti et al., 2014), which can continue into middle and old age and further increase the likelihood of falling into social isolation. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that childhood bullying victimization also affects middle and older adults’ social isolation.

Furthermore, according to the main effect model of social relationships (Uchino et al., 1996), adequate social relationships help to reduce middle and older adults’ depression. Social isolation indicates an objective state lacking appropriate social relationships and is considered a huge risk factor for middle and older adults’ depression in Western studies (Cho et al., 2019; Nicholson, 2012). For example, Cho et al. (2019) found that older adults experiencing severe social isolation have a higher likelihood of worse depression, based on a sample of 2,541 community-dwelling older adults in Los Angeles. Cultural background also plays a role in the effects of social isolation, as Chinese Confucian culture emphasizes close and intimate relationships between individuals and groups (Hofstede & Bond, 1984). Deviation from this cultural norm through social isolation may have a significant impact on Chinese middle and older adults’ depression. To sum up, this study proposes that social isolation may be a mediator in understanding the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and depression among middle and older adults, and the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2: A higher level of childhood bullying victimization is associated with a higher level of social isolation, which in turn exacerbates depression in later life.

Moderating Roles of Gender

The phenomenon of the “gender paradox of bullying” provides valuable insights into possible gender differences in the experiences and consequences of bullying victimization, whose main content lies in that female persons tend to report more severe impairments than male persons when they experience bullying (Tiet et al., 2001). The “gender paradox of bullying” phenomenon has been observed among children, adolescents, and young adults (Cao et al., 2020; Klomek et al., 2010), but as far as we know, relatively few studies examine this phenomenon among middle and older adults. One possible explanation for the “gender paradox of bullying” is that female persons and male persons may adopt different coping strategies when faced with stressful events (Meléndez et al., 2012). Female persons tend to focus more on internal thoughts and may exhibit avoidance and withdrawal behaviors, which could prolong their exposure to stressors (Cao et al., 2020; Meléndez et al., 2012). On the other hand, male persons may be more inclined to seek help and employ strategies to remove themselves from stressors as quickly as possible (Cao et al., 2020; Meléndez et al., 2012). As a result, childhood bullying victimization may have a more significant and enduring association with female persons’ depression and social isolation compared to male persons. Moreover, social isolation itself is a stressor, and when female persons face a deterioration in their social relationships, they may experience a prolonged lack of sufficient social support, leading to more severe depression compared to male persons (Luo et al., 2021).

Furthermore, Chinese Confucian culture also provides a reason to explore potential gender differences. Confucian culture emphasizes emotional closeness and relationship orientation as feminine characteristics, which encourages female persons to pay more attention to maintaining adequate and high-quality interpersonal relationships (Cao et al., 2020; Gomez-Baya et al., 2017). Conversely, male persons are encouraged to be independent and autonomous (Cao et al., 2020), leading them to be more achievement-oriented rather than relation-oriented (Sadeghi et al., 2020). Therefore, when exposed to childhood bullying victimization, Chinese female persons may be more vulnerable compared to male persons (Yan et al., 2022). However, most studies exploring gender differences are conducted in Western countries (Klomek et al., 2010; Meléndez et al., 2012), and it is necessary to provide empirical evidence about gender differences in the Chinese context. As a result, hypothesis 3 is listed as:

Hypothesis 3: Gender moderates the association between childhood bullying victimization and depression, the association between childhood bullying victimization and social isolation, and the association between social isolation and depression. These associations are stronger for female persons than for male persons.

Current Study

Based on the above literature review, this study aims to explore the long-term impact of childhood bullying victimization on middle and older adults’ depression, the mediating effect of social isolation, and the moderating effects of gender. As presented in Figure 1, this study utilized a moderated mediation model to examine the complex relationships between these variables.

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework.

Methods

Data and Sample

The data in the current study is obtained from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a nationally representative survey of adults aged 45 years and above. The CHARLS is conducted with a stratified multi-stage cluster sampling design, and ethics approval is obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Peking University (Zhao et al., 2014). This study adopts the 2018 round of the CHARLS (the latest wave) and combines it with the 2014 CHARLS Life History Survey, which collects participants’ childhood information. A total sample of 5,070 participants is involved according to the following criteria: (a) provides information about childhood bullying victimization in the 2014 CHARLS Life History Survey; (b) completes necessary assessments related to this study in the 2018 round of CHARLS; (c) aged ≥ 45 years. Specifically, 45.05% of respondents are female and 54.95% of them are male. The average age of the participants is 61.02 years old (SD = 9.48). Descriptive statistics of the participants in this study is shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics of Participants.

Characteristics	Frequency (N)	Percentage (%)
Gender
Male	2,786	54.95
Female	2,284	45.05
Age
Range: 45–95	M = 61.02	SD = 9.48
Marital status
Married	4,273	84.28
Single, divorced, or widowed	797	15.72
Educational level
Uneducated	213	4.20
Primary school or below	2,620	51.68
Middle school	1,408	27.77
High school/technical school	707	13.94
College or above	122	2.41
Hukou status
Rural	3,793	74.81
Urban	1,277	25.19
Ethnicity
Han	4,709	92.88
Ethnic minority	361	7.12
Religious belief
Yes	4,643	91.58
No	427	8.42

Measurements

Childhood Bullying Victimization

Considering school and neighborhood are the main bullying scenes (Choi et al., 2021), participants in the 2014 CHARLS life history survey are required to respond to two self-reported questions as follows: (a) How often were you picked on or bullied by kids in your neighborhood in your childhood? and (b) How often were you picked on or bullied by kids in your school in your childhood? (Wang, 2020). Each question is measured by a four-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = Never” to “4 = Often.” This study adds the score of these two items, with higher scores suggesting higher bullying victimization in childhood.

Social Isolation

According to the previous studies (Guo et al., 2021; Luo et al., 2021; Steptoe et al., 2013), the social isolation index is assessed through the following items: being separated from spouse or unmarried (single/ divorced/widowed), contacting with children less than once per week, living in rural areas and not participating in any social activities (e.g., go to sports or social clubs). In detail, the score of these social isolation items is summed up and ranges from 0 to 5, with a lower score demonstrating a lower level of social isolation.

Depression

This assessment is determined by the Chinese version of the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale (CES–D10) in CHARLS (Andresen et al., 1994; Guo et al., 2021). This scale includes 10 items, an example item is “I felt everything I did was an effort.” The CES–D10 is evaluated by a four-point Likert response scale, ranging from “1 = rarely or none of the time” to “4 = Most or all of the time.” The mean value of these 10 items is calculated to present depression. The Cronbach’s Alpha of CES–D10 is .806.

Covariates

Several socio-demographic characteristics are obtained as covariates, including age, gender (0 = female; 1 = male), educational level (1 = illiteracy to 5 = college or above), hukou status (0 = urban; 1 = rural), ethnicity (0 = ethnic minority; 1 = Han), and religious belief (0 = no; 1 = yes).

Data Analysis

First, this study calculates descriptive statistics and correlations among key study variables in SPSS version 26.0 (IBM). Then, model 4 and model 59 of PROCESS macro v3.5 (IBM) for SPSS are utilized to examine our hypotheses. After controlling for age, gender, educational level, hukou status, ethnicity, and religious belief, the direct effect of childhood bullying victimization on depression and the indirect effect through social isolation are tested by Model 4. The mediation models are presented as follows:

M = α_{0} + α_{1} X + e_{1}

(1)

Y = β_{0} + β_{1} X + β_{2} M + e_{2}

In the initial step of our analysis, we employ a regression model to forecast the mediating variable ( $M M$ ) based on the independent variable ( $X X$ ). Following that, we proceed with another regression model to predict the dependent variable ( $Y Y$ ) by incorporating both the independent variable ( $X X$ ) and the mediating variable ( $M M$ ) in Equation (2). It is important to note that the coefficients of the independent (β₁). and mediating variables (β₂). are included. Moreover, to estimate the sizes of direct and indirect effects, we conduct the bootstrap procedure with 5,000 random samples, following the guidelines by Hayes (2013). This resampling technique allows us to assess the significance of the indirect effects and gain robust estimates.

Lastly, we investigate gender differences in the aforementioned associations through Model 59. Interaction terms, namely “childhood bullying victimization × gender” and “social isolation × gender,” are introduced to explore potential variations based on gender. The gender differences were considered significant if the p-value of the interactions in each regression model was less than .05 (Hayes, 2013). Furthermore, to gain further insights, we conduct a simple slope analysis separately for females (1 SD below the mean) and males (1 SD above the mean).

Results

Preliminary Analysis

Table 2 presents the means, SDs, and correlations for variables in the current study. The results display that childhood bullying victimization is positively associated with social isolation (r = .030, p < .05), gender (r = .046, p < .01) and depression (r = .112, p < .01). Moreover, social isolation is positively related to depression (r = .191, p < .01) and gender is negatively associated with depression (r = −.165, p < .01).

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Study Variables.

Study Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1. Childhood bullying victimization	2.812	1.331	1.000
2. Social isolation	3.323	0.952	0.030*	1.000
3. Gender	0.550	0.498	0.046**	0.002	1.000
4. Depression	1.846	0.645	0.112**	0.191**	−0.165**	1.000

Note. Gender is a dummy variable, with the value of “0” and “1” representing female and male respondents respectively, thus, the mean value of gender represents the percentage of male respondents (55%). M = mean value, SD = standard deviation.

p < .05. **p < .01 (2-tailed).

Testing for Mediation Model

The model 1 in Table 3 shows that, when controlling for gender, age, educational level, hukou status, ethnicity, and religious belief, childhood bullying victimization is directly and positively related to depression (b = 0.059, p < .001), which supports Hypothesis 1. Among these control variables, age (b = 0.003, p = .002), gender (b = −0.216, p < .001), and educational level (b = −0.082, p < .001) are significantly related to depression. In addition, as shown in models 1 and 3, childhood bullying victimization is significantly associated with social isolation (b = 0.022, p = .014) (see modes 1), and social isolation is positively associated with depression (b = 0.100, p < .001) (see model 3). Bootstrap random sampling analysis suggests that both the direct effect of childhood bullying victimization on depression (b = .059, 95% CI [0.048, 0.074]) and the indirect effect of social isolation (b = 0.002, 95% CI [0.001, 0.004]) are significant, supporting Hypothesis 2.

Table 3.

Results of the Moderated Mediation Models.

Variable	Model 1: Social Isolation			Model 2: Social Isolation			Model 3: Depression			Model 4: Depression
Variable	b	SE	p	b	SE	p	b	SE	p	b	SE	p
Age	0.005	0.001	<.001	0.005	0.001	<.001	0.003	0.001	.002	0.003	0.001	.003
Gender	0.012	0.025	.634	0.011	0.025	.649	−0.216	0.018	<.001	−0.216	0.018	<.001
Educational level	−0.150	0.015	<.001	−0.151	0.015	<.001	−0.082	0.011	<.001	−0.082	0.011	<.001
Hukou status	0.877	0.030	<.001	0.875	0.030	<.001	0.029	0.024	.221	0.028	0.024	.239
Ethnicity	−0.079	0.046	.085	−0.080	0.046	.084	−0.021	0.034	.539	−0.021	0.034	.524
Religious belief	0.067	0.043	.120	0.068	0.043	.114	−0.030	0.031	.336	−0.033	0.031	.298
Childhood bullying victimization	0.022	0.009	.014	0.045	0.014	.001	0.059	0.007	<.001	0.062	0.010	<.001
Childhood bullying victimization × gender				−0.040	0.018	.027				−0.007	0.013	.591
Social isolation							0.100	0.010	<.001	0.130	0.014	<.001
Social isolation × gender										−0.058	0.018	.002
R ²	.219			.219			.075			.094
F	202.171***			177.652***			58.648***			52.419***

Note. b = unstandardized regression coefficients; p = p value; SE = standard error.

***

p < .001.

Testing for Moderated Mediation Model

The model 2 and model 4 in Table 3 display the results when gender is entered as a moderator. In detail, both the interaction term (childhood bullying victimization × gender) on social isolation (b = −0.040, p = .027) and the interaction term (social isolation × gender) on depression (b = −0.058, p = .002) are significant. However, the interaction term (childhood bullying victimization × gender) on depression (b = −0.007, p = .591) is not significant. To provide a clear view, the results of simple slope analysis are presented in Figures 2 and 3. Simple slope tests indicates that: (a) the effect of childhood bullying victimization on social isolation is stronger for female older adults (b = 0.045, p < .001) than for those male older adults (b = 0.005, p > 0.05); (b) the effect of social isolation on depression is also stronger for female older adults (b = 0.130, p < .001) than for those male older adults (b = 0.072, p < .001). Thus, Hypothesis 3 is partially supported.

Figure 2.

Gender as a moderator of the relationship between childhood bullying victimization and social isolation.

Figure 3.

Gender as a moderator of the relationship between social isolation and depression.

Discussion

Childhood Bullying Victimization and Depression in Later Life

The findings of this study are consistent with previous research that has found a significant link between childhood bullying victimization and depression among young adults (Lee, 2021; Lereya et al., 2015). This study extends this research by showing that the association between childhood bullying victimization and depression persists into middle and older adulthood from the life-course perspective. Based on the cumulative disadvantage hypothesis (Dannefer, 2003), two cumulative disadvantage processes help to understand the long-term association. First, the immediate association between bullying victimization and depression at the early stage of childhood may accumulate gradually with age (Lereya et al., 2015), and ultimately form the greatest cumulative disadvantage in terms of depression among middle and older adults. Second, childhood bullying victimization additionally puts children or adolescents at the disadvantage in the initial development of interpersonal abilities (Barile et al., 2015). As a result, these congenitally deficient abilities may also form the greatest cumulative disadvantage in one’s middle and old age and further cannot play protective roles to reduce depression in later life (Jiang & Jiang, 2022). These findings suggest that childhood bullying victimization is not only an immediate concern, but it also has long-term association with individuals’ mental health that should be taken into consideration.

Mediating Role of Social Isolation

Moreover, in accordance with several similar studies that have confirmed the associations between adverse childhood experiences and psychological wellbeing among young or older adults (Burns et al., 2022; Vederhus et al., 2022), the current results show that childhood bullying victimization significantly increases the possibility for middle and older adults to be trapped in social isolation, further improving their levels of depression. Specifically, exposure to childhood bullying victimization blocks the initial reserve of individuals’ interpersonal abilities at the early stage (Barile et al., 2015), causing them unable to obtain sufficient and high-quality social relationships to maintain mental health in the future (Uchino et al., 1996), and also damages their stress response regulation systems (Subramaniam et al., 2020), further forming stable negative coping strategies of avoidance and withdrawal (Bjereld, 2018), which is unfavorable for them to get out of the state of social isolation (Nicholson, 2012). Furthermore, experiencing high levels of social isolation indicates that individuals lack sufficient and high-quality social relationships to maintain mental health (Luo et al., 2021; Nicholson, 2012). To sum up, the present study contributes to the existing literature by confirming a crucial mediator to understand the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and depression in later life.

Moderating Roles of Gender

Furthermore, this study proves that gender moderates the association between childhood bullying victimization and depression, as well as the association between social isolation and depression. Specifically, compared with male persons, female persons are more vulnerable during the influence processes of childhood bullying victimization on depression in later life. It is noted that most of the studies in terms of the “gender paradox of bullying” are conducted among children, adolescents, and young adults (Cao et al., 2020; Klomek et al., 2010); this study has the advantage of extending and confirming the “gender paradox of bullying” to the group of middle and older adults. Two reasons can be applied to explain it; first, Confucian cultural norms emphasize that female persons are characterized by emotional connection and are relation-oriented (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017), while male persons are portrayed with the features of independent, autonomy, and achievement-oriented (Sadeghi et al., 2020). In this sense, childhood bullying victimization, which is characterized by worse interpersonal relationships (Yan et al., 2022), is especially inconsistent with Confucian cultural norms regarding female persons. Second, when faced with stressful situations, individuals may exhibit different coping strategies based on their gender. Female persons tend to focus more on their internal thoughts and emotions when dealing with stressors, engaging in rumination and self-reflection (Meléndez et al., 2012). This introspective approach may sometimes lead to prolonged exposure to stressors as female individuals may spend more time dwelling on their problems rather than seeking immediate solutions. On the other hand, male persons often adopt a problem-focused coping style, actively seeking solutions to address stressors. They may be more inclined to seek help and support from others, engage in problem-solving discussions, and think critically about how to resolve the issue (Cao et al., 2020). This proactive approach can lead to a quicker resolution of stressors and a reduced duration of exposure to stress.

Interestingly, gender does not moderate the direct association between childhood bullying victimization and depression. Perception of time affects individuals’ priority goals (Carstensen et al., 1999), and for middle and older adults, the limited perception of their lifetime makes them regard reducing negative emotion and increasing positive emotion as their priority goals (Carstensen et al., 1999), which is particularly urgent for female persons (Schwartz & Litwin, 2018). Depression is a typical negative emotion; under the influence of the priority goals of emotion promotion, female persons are also likely to stimulate strong motivations to abandon traditional feminine characteristics and exhibit positive coping strategies just like male persons, finally contributing to reducing the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and female persons’ depression. Therefore, this finding enriches the “gender paradox of bullying” by adding the boundary condition of the age difference. The “gender paradox of bullying” does not extend to individuals’ later life in terms of the associations between childhood bullying victimization and negative emotions.

Theoretical Contributions

This study offers several theoretical contributions that have not been previously explored in literature. Specifically, the findings of this study confirm that the associations between childhood bullying victimization and depression can extend into later life. This highlights the fact that childhood bullying is not only a problem in the immediate term but also a concern that can affect individuals across their entire life course. Additionally, the study provides insight into the underlying mechanisms that contribute to these associations by demonstrating that social isolation plays a mediating role in the relationship between childhood bullying victimization and depression. Furthermore, the study sheds light on gender differences in these associations, highlighting that the “gender paradox of bullying” is applicable to middle and older adults, just as it is to adolescents and young adults. However, the study also finds that there are certain circumstances under which this paradox is no longer valid. Specifically, for the negative emotion of depression in middle and older adults, the “gender paradox of bullying” is not a useful explanatory framework.

Implications and Limitations

Implications

The findings provide several important implications for social policy and intervention practice. First, healthcare providers should actively inquire about middle and older adults’ childhood bullying victimization experiences when diagnosing and treating their depression (Jiang & Jiang, 2022). Some evidence-based psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, nostalgic therapy, and mindfulness therapy (Miehls, 2017), can be actively taken to weaken the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and depression in later life. Second, it is crucial to take effective measures to reduce the possibility of children or adolescents being exposed to bullying victimization, which can fundamentally block the negative association between childhood bullying victimization and depression for all age members. Especially, policymakers need to combine schools, families, neighbors, and voluntary organizations together to form integrated support networks to deal with childhood bullying concerns (Ren et al., 2018). Third, the mediating role of social isolation suggests that policymakers and healthcare providers should emphasize the importance to encourage middle and older adults to participate in social activities and maintain social relationships. Practical projects, such as volunteer services, re-employment after retirement, and senior citizens college (Liu & Lou, 2017), may help to weaken the long-term association between childhood bullying victimization and depression by mitigating the levels of social isolation. Last, the current study specifically calls on the inclusion of gender factors into the formulation of social policies and intervention practices for mental health promotion among middle and older adults (Luo et al., 2021), and this helps to shift the accumulated disadvantages in terms of stressors coping and mental health caused by cultural norms and personality traits among female persons.

Limitations

Limitations deserve attention in this study. First, childhood bullying victimization derived from respondents’ self-report retrospective questionnaires, which may be influenced by recall biases and, in turn, result in biased estimation results. However, the middle and older adults in this study were mainly born in the 1950s and 1960s, and there was no access to obtain information on childhood bullying at that time. Besides, retrospective reporting has been supported to be valid and widely applied in life-course studies (Jiang & Jiang, 2022). Moreover, due to the limitation of CHARLS, childhood bullying victimization was measured from two main bullying scenes of school and neighborhood (Choi et al., 2021). Although studies have confirmed the validity of this measurement (Wang, 2020), it is necessary to adopt comprehensive measures of childhood bullying victimization. For example, considering the duration, types, and feelings of childhood bullying in the future (Zhang & Wu, 1999). In addition, the cross-sectional design in this study limits the understanding of the causality between variables, and a longitudinal design can be beneficial for future studies on this topic. Last, this study was conducted in Chinese Confucian culture, and the unique cultural norm limits the generalization of our results to other cultural backgrounds. A cross-cultural comparative study is encouraged to conduct in the future.

Conclusion

The results of this study provide valuable insights into the long-term associations between childhood bullying victimization and depression among middle-aged and older adults. By using a nationally representative sample and adopting a life-course perspective, the study demonstrates that childhood bullying victimization continues to have an enduring association with depression in later life. This finding emphasizes the importance of addressing childhood bullying experiences not only in the immediate term but also throughout the entire life course to prevent potential long-term mental health consequences. Furthermore, this study highlights the role of social isolation as a significant mediator in the association between childhood bullying victimization and depression. Social isolation serves as a crucial link in understanding how early-life adverse experiences influence depression in later life. By identifying social isolation as a key mediator, this study suggests that intervention efforts should focus on reducing social isolation among middle-aged and older adults who have experienced childhood bullying. Moreover, this study reveals the moderating role of gender in the association between childhood bullying victimization and social isolation, as well as in the relationship between social isolation and depression. The observed “gender paradox of bullying” phenomenon is found to be applicable to middle-aged and older adults as it is to younger age groups. This finding underscores the importance of recognizing gender differences in coping strategies and mental health outcomes when addressing the consequences of childhood bullying victimization.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-jiv-10.1177_08862605241227980 – Supplemental material for The Long Arm of Childhood Bullying Victimization: Associations with Social Isolation, Gender Differences and Depression in Later Life

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-jiv-10.1177_08862605241227980 for The Long Arm of Childhood Bullying Victimization: Associations with Social Isolation, Gender Differences and Depression in Later Life by Chaoxin Jiang and Jiaming Shi in Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Footnotes

Data Availability Statement

The data for the analysis of this paper comes from the secondary data of “China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study,” and more specific information can be obtained through the link of .

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Research ethics approval was received from the institution where CHARLS conducted.

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Chaoxin Jiang is an assistant professor at the School of Social Development, East China Normal University. His research interests focus on child development and social work.

Jiaming Shi is an assistant professor at the Department of Social Security, School of Public Administration, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics. His research interests focus on older adults’ mental health (especially cognitive health and depressive symptoms) and intergenerational relationships.

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