A Network Analysis Exploring the Relationship Between ICD-11 Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) Symptoms and Emotion Regulation Strategies in Women Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence in Spain
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
A Network Analysis Exploring the Relationship Between ICD-11 Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) Symptoms and Emotion Regulation Strategies in Women Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence in Spain
Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) was introduced in ICD-11 in 2018, and there has been limited research on the association between CPTSD and emotion regulation (ER) strategies. It is important to understand how the constituent dimensions of CPTSD (PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organisation [DSO]) are associated with different ER strategies in order to help inform the development of interventions to aid recovery from this debilitating condition. This study examined the network structure of PTSD and DSO symptoms of CPTSD, along with components of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression), in a sample of Spanish women who had experienced intimate partner violence (N = 317).The results showed that the most central symptom was “feeling distant or cut off from others.” In addition, other DSO symptoms were positively associated with the maladaptive strategies of expressive suppression and negatively associated with the cognitive reappraisal strategies. In the case of affective dysregulation symptoms, hypoactivation was found to play a more central role than hyperactivation. Future research is needed to examine whether targeting emotion regulation strategies may contribute to changes in affective dysregulation (particularly hypoactivation) and other DSO symptoms.
AlsakerK.MoenB. E.BasteV.MorkenT. (2016). How has living with intimate partner violence affected the work situation? A qualitative study among abused women in Norway. Journal of Family Violence, 31(4), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9806-2
2.
AnusuyaS. P.GayatrideviS. (2025). Acceptance and commitment therapy and psychological well-being: A narrative review. Cureus, 17(1), Article e77705. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.77705
3.
ArmourC.RobinsonM.RossJ. (2021). Factor structure of the International Trauma Questionnaire in UK Armed Forces veterans residing in Northern Ireland. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), Article 1924954. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1924954
4.
Astill WrightL.RobertsN. P.BarawiK.SimonN.ZammitS.McElroyE.BissonJ. I. (2021). Disturbed sleep connects symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and somatization: A network analysis approach. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(2), 375–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22619
5.
BarnesS. M.LynnS. J. (2010). Mindfulness skills and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal study. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 30(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.2190/IC.30.1.e
6.
BarthelA. L.HayA.DoanS. N.HofmannS. G. (2018). Interpersonal emotion regulation: A review of social and developmental components. Behaviour Change, 35(4), 203–216. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/bec.2018.19
7.
Ben-EzraM.KaratziasT.HylandP.BrewinC. R.CloitreM.BissonJ. I.RobertsN. P.Lueger-SchusterB.ShevlinM. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as per ICD-11 proposals: A population study in Israel. Depression and Anxiety, 35(3), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22723
8.
BennettD. C.ModrowskiC. A.KerigP. K.ChaploS. D. (2015). Investigating the dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of traumatized detained youth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(5), 465. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000057
9.
BerkingM.WuppermanP.ReichardtA.PejicT.DippelA.ZnojH. (2008). Emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target in psychotherapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(11), 1230–1237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.08.005
BrewinC. R.CloitreM.HylandP.ShevlinM.MaerckerA.BryantR. A.HumayunA.JonesL. M.KageeA.RousseauC.SomasundaramD.SuzukiY.WesselyS.van OmmerenM.ReedG. M. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001
13.
BringmannL. F.ElmerT.EpskampS.KrauseR. W.SchochD.WichersM.WigmanJ.SnippeE. (2019). What do centrality measures measure in psychological networks?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(8), 892–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000446
14.
BrockmanR.CiarrochiJ.ParkerP.KashdanT. (2016). Emotion regulation strategies in daily life: Mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 46(2), 91–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2016.1218926
15.
CabelloR.SalgueroJ. M.Fernández-BerrocalP.GrossJ. J. (2013). A Spanish adaptation of the emotion regulation questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 29(4), 234. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1027/1015-5759/a000150
16.
ChangC.KaczkurkinA. N.McLeanC. P.FoaE. B. (2018). Emotion regulation is associated with PTSD and depression among female adolescent survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 319. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000306
17.
ClappJ. D.JonesJ. M.JaconisM.OlsenS. A.WoodwardM. J.BeckJ. G. (2014). Expressive inhibition following interpersonal trauma: An analysis of reported function. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(2), 230–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.11.007
18.
ClappJ. D.PattonS. C.BeckJ. G. (2015). Expressive inhibition in response to stress: Implications for emotional processing following trauma. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 29, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.11.008
19.
CloitreM.CohenL. R.OrtigoK. M.JacksonC.KoenenK. C. (2020). Treating survivors of childhood abuse and interpersonal trauma: STAIR narrative therapy. Guilford Publications.
20.
CloitreM.MirandaR.Stovall-McCloughK. C.HanH. (2005). Beyond PTSD: Emotion regulation and interpersonal problems as predictors of functional impairment in survivors of childhood abuse. Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 119–124. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80060-7
21.
CloitreM.ShevlinM.BrewinC. R.BissonJ. I.RobertsN. P.MaerckerA.KaratziasT.HylandP. (2018). The international trauma questionnaire: Development of a self-report measure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12956
22.
CohenJ. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. Academic Press.
23.
CyrG.BelangerC.GodboutN. (2022). French translation and validation of the International Trauma Questionnaire in a Canadian community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 128, Article 105627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105627
DesrosiersA.VineV.CurtissJ.KlemanskiD. H. (2014). Observing nonreactively: A conditional process model linking mindfulness facets, cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 165, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.04.024
26.
DvirY.FordJ. D.HillM.FrazierJ. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22(3), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1097/hrp.0000000000000014
27.
EhringT.QuackD. (2010). Emotion regulation difficulties in trauma survivors: The role of trauma type and PTSD symptom severity. Behavior Therapy, 41(4), 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.04.004
28.
EpskampS.BorsboomD.FriedE. (2018). Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper. Behavioural Research Methods, 50(1), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0862-1
29.
EpskampS.CramerA. O.WaldorpL. J.SchmittmannV. D.BorsboomD. (2012). Qgraph: Network visualizations of relationships in psychometric data. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i04
30.
Fernández-FillolC.PitsiakouC.Perez-GarciaM.TevaI.Hidalgo-RuzzanteN. (2021). Complex PTSD in survivors of intimate partner violence: Risk factors related to symptoms and diagnoses. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), Article 2003616. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.2003616
31.
FlaschP.MurrayC. E.CroweA. (2015). Overcoming abuse: A phenomenological investigation of the journey to recovery from past intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(22), 3373–3401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515599161
32.
FordB. Q.TroyA. S. (2019). Reappraisal reconsidered: A closer look at the costs of an acclaimed emotion-regulation strategy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(2), 195–203. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0963721419827526
33.
FordJ. D. (2021). Progress and limitations in the treatment of complex PTSD and developmental trauma disorder. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-020-00236-6
34.
FriedE.EidhofM.PalicS.CostantiniG.Huisman-van DijkH.BocktingC.KarstoftK. (2018). Replicability and generalizability of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) networks: A cross-cultural multisite study of PTSD symptoms in four trauma patient samples. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617745092
35.
FriedmanJ.HastieT.TibshiraniR. (2008). Sparse inverse covariance estimation with the graphical lasso. Biostatistics, 9(3), 432–441. https://doi.org/10.1093/biostatistics/kxm045
36.
GarnefskiN.RieffeC.JellesmaF.TerwogtM. M.KraaijV. (2007). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and emotional problems in 9–11-year-old children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0562-3
37.
GarnefskiN.Van Den KommerT.KraaijV.TeerdsJ.LegersteeJ.OnsteinE. (2002). The relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and emotional problems: Comparison between a clinical and a non-clinical sample. European Journal of Personality, 16(5), 403–420. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/per.458
38.
GoffmanE. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice Hall.
39.
GratzK. L.RoemerL. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9102-4
40.
GrossJ. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
41.
GrossJ. J.JohnO. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
HaselgruberA.KnefelM.SölvaK.Lueger-SchusterB. (2021). Foster children’s complex psychopathology in the context of cumulative childhood trauma: The interplay of ICD-11 complex PTSD, dissociation, depression, and emotion regulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 282, 372–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.116
44.
HaselgruberA.SölvaK.Lueger-SchusterB. (2020). Validation of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in foster children using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 141(1), 60–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13100
45.
Herrero-AriasR.TruongA. N.Ortiz-BarredaG.Briones-VozmedianoE. (2021). Keeping silent or running away. The voices of Vietnamese women survivors of Intimate Partner Violence. Global Health Action, 14(1), Article 1863128. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2020.1863128
46.
HoG. W.KaratziasT.CloitreM.ChanA. C.BressingtonD.ChienW. T.HylandP.ShevlinM. (2019). Translation and validation of the Chinese ICD-11 international trauma questionnaire (ITQ) for the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), Article 1608718. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1608718
47.
HsiehM.StrightA. D. (2012). Adolescents’ emotion regulation strategies, self-concept, and internalizing problems. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(6), 876–901. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0272431611433848
48.
HylandP.ShevlinM.BrewinC. R.CloitreM.DownesA. J.JumbeS.KaratziasT.BissonJ. I.RobertsN. P. (2017). Validation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1363, 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12771
49.
HylandP.ShevlinM.FyvieC.KaratziasT. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM-5 and ICD-11: Clinical and behavioral Correlates. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31(2), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22272
JonesP. J.MaR.McNallyR. J. (2021). Bridge centrality: A network approach to understanding comorbidity. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 56(2), 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2019.1614898
52.
KaratziasT.HylandP.Ben-EzraM.ShevlinM. (2018). Hyperactivation and hypoactivation affective dysregulation symptoms are integral in complex posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a nonclinical Israeli sample. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 27(4), Article e1745. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1745
53.
KaratziasT.Mc GlanaghyE.CloitreM. (2023). Enhanced skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation (ESTAIR): A new modular treatment for ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). Brain Sciences, 13(9), 1300. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13091300
54.
KaratziasT.ShevlinM.CloitreM.BusuttilW.GrahamK.HendrikxL.HylandP.BiscoeN.MurphyD. (2024). Enhanced skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation versus treatment as usual for ICD-11 complex PTSD: A pilot randomised controlled trial (The RESTORE trial). Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 93(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1159/000538428
55.
KaratziasT.ShevlinM.FyvieC.HylandP.EfthymiadouE.WilsonD.RobertsN.BissonJ. I.BrewinC. R.CloitreM. (2016). An initial psychometric assessment of an ICD-11 based measure of PTSD and complex PTSD (ICD-TQ): Evidence of construct validity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 44, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.10.009
56.
KaratziasT.ShevlinM.FyvieC.HylandP.EfthymiadouE.WilsonD.RobertsN.BissonJ. I.BrewinC. R.CloitreM. (2017). Evidence of distinct profiles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) based on the new ICD-11 Trauma Questionnaire (ICD-TQ). Journal of Affective Disorder, 207, 181–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.032
57.
KaratziasT.ShevlinM.HylandP.Ben-EzraM.CloitreM.OwkzarekM.McElroyE. (2020). The network structure of ICD-11 complex post-traumatic stress disorder across different traumatic life events. World Psychiatry, 19(3), 400. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20795
58.
KaratziasT.ShevlinM.HylandP.BrewinC. R.CloitreM.BradleyA.KitchinerN. J.JumbeS.BissonJ. I.RobertsN. P. (2018). The role of negative cognitions, emotion regulation strategies, and attachment style in complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Implications for new and existing therapies. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(2), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12172
59.
KazlauskasE.GegieckaiteG.HylandP.ZelvieneP.CloitreM. (2018). The structure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in Lithuanian mental health services. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), Article 1414559. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1414559
60.
KazlauskasE.ZelvieneP.DaniunaiteI.HylandP.KvedaraiteM.ShevlinM.CloitreM. (2020). The structure of ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD in adolescents exposed to potentially traumatic experiences. Journal of Affective Disorders, 265, 169–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.061
61.
KesslerR. C.Aguilar-GaxiolaS.AlonsoJ.BenjetC.BrometE. J.CardosoG.DegenhardtL.de GirolamoG.DinolovaR. V.FerryF.FlorescuS.GurejeO.HaroJ. M.HuangY.KaramE. G.KawakamiN.LeeS.LepineJ. P.LevinsonD.. . . KoenenK. C. (2017). Trauma and PTSD in the WHO world mental health surveys. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(sup5), Article 1353383. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383
62.
KnefelM.KaratziasT.Ben-EzraM.CloitreM.Lueger-SchusterB.MaerckerA. (2019). The replicability of ICD-11 complex post-traumatic stress disorder symptom networks in adults. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 214(6), 361–368. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.286
63.
KnefelM.Lueger-SchusterB.BissonJ.KaratziasT.KazlauskasE.RobertsN. P. (2020). A cross-cultural comparison of ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptom networks in Austria, the United Kingdom, and Lithuania. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22361
64.
KnefelM.TranU. S.Lueger-SchusterB. (2016). The association of posttraumatic stress disorder, complex posttraumatic stress disorder, and borderline personality disorder from a network analytical perspective. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 43, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.09.002
65.
KruisJ.MarisG. (2016). Three representations of the Ising model. Scientific Reports, 6, Article 34175. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34175
66.
KuzucuY. (2016). Do anger control and social problem-solving mediate relationships between difficulties in emotion regulation and aggression in adolescents?Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(3), 849–866. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.12738/estp.2016.3.0003
67.
LeeD. A.ScraggP.TurnerS. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(4), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711201161109
68.
LeinerA. S.KearnsM. C.JacksonJ. L.AstinM. C.RothbaumB. O. (2012). Avoidant coping and treatment outcome in rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(2), 317. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026814
69.
LelaurainS.FonteD.GigerJ. C.GuignardS.Lo MonacoG. (2021). Legitimizing intimate partner violence: The role of romantic love and the mediating effect of patriarchal ideologies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13–14), 6351–6368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518818427
70.
LiJ.WangW.HuW.YuanZ.ZhouR.ZhangW.QuZ. (2021). Validation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD in Chinese children as per the ICD-11 proposals using the International trauma questionnaire. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), Article 1888525. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1888525
71.
LillyM. M.LimB. H. (2012). Shared pathogeneses of posttrauma pathologies: Attachment, emotion regulation, and cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 737–748. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21934
72.
LitzB. T.GrayM. J. (2002). Emotional numbing in posttraumatic stress disorder: Current and future research directions. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36(2), 198–204. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01002.x
MaerckerA.BrewinC. R.BryantR. A.CloitreM.ReedG. M.van OmmerenM.HumayunA.JonesL. M.KageeA.LlosaA. E.RousseauC.SomasundaramD. J.SouzaR.SuzukiY.WeissbeckerI.WesselyS. C.FirstM. B.SaxenaS. (2013). Proposals for mental disorders specifically associated with stress in the ICD-11. Lancet, 381, 1683–1685. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(12)62191-6
75.
MannariniS.TacciniF.RossiA. A. (2021). Women and violence: Alexithymia, relational competence and styles, and satisfaction with life: A comparative profile analysis. Behavioral Sciences, 11(11), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11110147
76.
MarianȘ.SavaF. A.DindeleganC. (2022). A network analysis of DSM-5 avoidant personality disorder diagnostic criteria. Personality and Individual Differences, 188, Article 111454. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111454
77.
MasiC. M.ChenH. Y.HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394
78.
MathesonF. I.DaoudN.Hamilton-WrightS.BorensteinH.PedersenC.O’CampoP. (2015). Where did she go? The transformation of self-esteem, self-identity, and mental well-being among women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Women’s Health Issues, 25(5), 561–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2015.04.006
Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality [Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad]. (2020). Survey on Violence against Women [Macroencuesta de violencia contra la mujer 2019]. Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality, Publications Centre.
83.
MlotekA. E.PaivioS. C. (2017). Emotion-focused therapy for complex trauma. Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies, 16(3), 198–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/14779757.2017.1330704
84.
MooreS. A.ZoellnerL. A.MollenholtN. (2008). Are expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms?Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(9), 993–1000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.001
85.
MouldingN.FranzwayS.WendtS.ZuffereyC.ChungD. (2021). Rethinking women’s mental health after intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 27(8), 1064–1090. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220921937
86.
Muñoz-RivasM.BellotA.MontorioI.Ronzón-TiradoR.RedondoN. (2021). Profiles of emotion regulation and post-traumatic stress severity among female victims of intimate partner violence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(13), Article 6865. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136865
87.
MurrayS. M.RobinetteK. L.BoltonP.CetinogluT.MurrayL. K.AnnanJ.BassJ. K. (2018). Stigma among survivors of sexual violence in Congo: Scale development and psychometrics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(3), 491–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515608805
88.
NeffK. D.McGeheeP. (2010). Self-compassion and psychological resilience among adolescents and young adults. Self and Identity, 9(3), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860902979307
89.
OpsahlT.AgneessensF.SkvoretzJ. (2010). Node centrality in weighted networks: Generalizing degree and shortest paths. Social Networks, 32(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2010.03.006
90.
OrchowskiL. M.YusufovM.OesterleD.BogenK. W.ZlotnickC. (2020). Intimate partner violence and coerced unprotected sex among young women attending community college. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(3), 871–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01537-5
91.
OrobiodeCastroB.BoschJ. D.VeermanJ. W.KoopsW. (2003). The effects of emotion regulation, attribution, and delay prompts on aggressive boys’ social problem solving. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023557125265
92.
OwczarekM.Ben-EzraM.KaratziasT.HylandP.VallieresF.ShevlinM. (2020). Testing the factor structure of the international trauma questionnaire (ITQ) in African community samples from Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 25(4), 348–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2019.1689718
93.
PuticaA.Van DamN. T.StewardT.AgathosJ.FelminghamK.O’DonnellM. (2021). Alexithymia in post-traumatic stress disorder is not just emotion numbing: Systematic review of neural evidence and clinical implications. Journal of Affective Disorders, 278, 519–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.100
94.
RiddellT.Ford-GilboeM.LeipertB. (2009). Strategies used by rural women to stop, avoid, or escape from intimate partner violence. Health Care for Women International, 30(1–2), 134–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330802523774
95.
RobinaughD. J.MillnerA. J.McNallyR. J. (2016). Identifying highly influential nodes in the complicated grief network. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(6), 747–757. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/abn0000181
96.
RodebaughT. L.TongeN. A.PiccirilloM. L.FriedE.HorensteinA.MorrisonA. S.GoldinP.GrossJ. J.LimM. H.FernandezK. C.BlancoC.SchneierF. R.BogdanR.ThompsonR. J.HeimbergR. G. (2018). Does centrality in a cross-sectional network suggest intervention targets for social anxiety disorder?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(10), 831–844. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000336
97.
SchnyderU.EhlersA.ElbertT.FoaE. B.GersonsB. P.ResickP. A.ShapiroF.CloitreM. (2015). Psychotherapies for PTSD: What do they have in common?. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), Article 28186. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.28186
98.
ScoglioA. A. J.RudatD. A.GarvertD.JarmolowskiM.JacksonC.HermanJ. L. (2018). Self-compassion and responses to trauma: The role of emotion regulation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(13), 2016–2036. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515622296
99.
SegalO.SherH.AderkaI. M.WeinbachN. (2023). Does acceptance lead to change? Training in radical acceptance improves implementation of cognitive reappraisal. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 164, Article 104303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2023.104303
100.
ShevlinM.HylandP.KaratziasT.FyvieC.RobertsN.BissonJ. I.BrewinC. R.CloitreM. (2017). Alternative models of disorders of traumatic stress based on the new ICD-11 proposals. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 5, 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12695
101.
ShortN. A.BoffaJ. W.ClancyK.SchmidtN. B. (2018). Effects of emotion regulation strategy use in response to stressors on PTSD symptoms: An ecological momentary assessment study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 230, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.063
102.
SimpsonL. E.KumarS. A.BrockdorfA. N.BrockR. L.MessmanT. L.GratzK. L.DiLilloD. (2024). The cumulative impact of recurrent experiences of intimate partner violence on emotion dysregulation: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 40(11–12), 2760–2783. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241278996
103.
SpillerT. R.LeviO.NeriaY.Suarez-JimenezB.Bar-HaimY.LazarovA. (2020). On the validity of the centrality hypothesis in cross-sectional between-subject networks of psychopathology. BMC Medicine, 18(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01740-5
104.
St. VilN. M.CarterT.JohnsonS. (2018). Betrayal trauma and barriers to forming new intimate relationships among survivors of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7–8), NP3495–NP3509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518779596
105.
SullivanT. P.MeeseK. J.SwanS. C.MazureC. M.SnowD. L. (2005). Precursors and correlates of women’s violence: Child abuse traumatization, victimization of women, avoidance coping, and psychological symptoms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(3), 290–301. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00223.x
106.
SuwartonoC.BintamurD. (2019). Validation of the emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ): Network analysis as an alternative of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). ANIMA Indonesian Psychological Journal, 34(3), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.24123/aipj.v34i3.2300
107.
TackmanA. M.SrivastavaS. (2016). Social responses to expressive suppression: The role of personality judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(4), 574. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000053
108.
TeixeiraA.SilvaE.TavaresD.FreireT. (2015). Portuguese validation of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA): Relations with self-esteem and life satisfaction. Child Indicators Research, 8(3), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-014-9266-2
109.
ThananowanN.KaesornsamutP.O’RourkeT.HegadorenK. (2021). How Thai women manage living in the context of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9–10), NP5192–NP5214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518799457
110.
ThomasK. A.GoodmanL.PutninsS. (2015). “I have lost everything”: Trade-offs of seeking safety from intimate partner violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(2), 170. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ort0000044
111.
TroisiG.CesàroA. N. (2021). Post-traumatic affects and intimate partner violence: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.6092/2282-1619/mjcp-2844
112.
VangM. L.DokkedahlS. B.LøkkegaardS. S.JakobsenA. V.MøllerL.Auning-HansenM. A.ElklitA. (2021). Validation of ICD-11 PTSD and DSO using the International Trauma Questionnaire in five clinical samples recruited in Denmark. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), Article 1894806. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1894806
113.
WalshK.FortierM. A.DiLilloD. (2010). Adult coping with childhood sexual abuse: A theoretical and empirical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.06.009
114.
WebbT. L.MilesE.SheeranP. (2012). Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027600
115.
WeissN. H.TullM. T.DavisL. T.DehonE. E.FultonJ. J.GratzK. L. (2012). Examining the association between emotion regulation difficulties and probable posttraumatic stress disorder within a sample of African Americans. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 41, 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2011.621970
116.
WernerK.GrossJ. J. (2010). Emotion regulation and psychopathology: A conceptual framework. In KringA. M.SloanD. M. (Eds.), Emotion regulation and psychopathology: A transdiagnostic approach to etiology and treatment (pp. 13–37). The Guilford Press.
117.
WhiteM. E.SatyenL. (2015). Cross-cultural differences in intimate partner violence and depression: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24, 120–130. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.005
118.
WojnarowskaA.KobylinskaD.LewczukK. (2020). Acceptance as an emotion regulation strategy in experimental psychological research: What we know and how we can improve that knowledge. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00242
119.
World Health Organization. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. In Global and regional estimates of violence against women Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence (pp. 51–51).
120.
World Health Organization. (2018). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th Revision). WHO.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
