Influence of Body Mass Index,Perceived Media Pressure,and Peer Criticism/Teasing on Adolescent Girls’ Body Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction and Clothing-Related Behaviors

Abstract

The present study investigated the relative importance of Body Mass Index (BMI), perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing for body satisfaction/dissatisfaction of female adolescents and their clothing-related behaviors. This study also examined the influence of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction on clothing-related behaviors. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 320 high school girls living in a southeastern part of the United States. The data analysis consisted of exploratory factor analysis, hierarchical regression analysis, and bivariate and multiple regression analyses. When examining the relative importance of the three variables on adolescent girls' body satisfaction, BMI was found to be the least important factor. When entered into the regression equation alone, BMI was found to be a significant determinant of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. However, when it was entered into the regression equation with perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing, BMI was not a significant factor. The results showed that perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing have significant negative influences on adolescent girls' body satisfaction. The results further indicated that perceived pressure from media affects both self-enhancing and body-concealing clothing-related behaviors. The results also revealed that peer criticism/teasing is a critical determinant of Body-Concealing Behavior. BMI, however, do not demonstrate significant influence on either self-enhancing or body-concealing behaviors. A significant positive relationship was found between body satisfaction and self-enhancing behaviors, whereas a significant negative relationship was found between body satisfaction and body-concealing behaviors.

Keywords

adolescents BMI perceived media pressure peer criticism/teasing body satisfaction/dissatisfaction clothing-related behaviors

Adolescence, a transitional period between childhood and adulthood, is in general accompanied by dramatic changes both physical and emotional (Lerner, 2002). Since body image represents a major element of self-esteem for adolescents, numerous developmental physical changes are often very stressful for adolescents, amplifying their body consciousness (Newman, Sontag, & Salvato, 2006). The thoughts and feelings that adolescents develop about their bodies follow them into adulthood, making adolescence an especially critical period in developing one’s body image. Despite the importance of developing a positive perception of one’s body during adolescence, substantial empirical evidence indicates that body dissatisfaction is highly prevalent during adolescence; adolescent girls display greater body dissatisfaction than boys do (Barker & Galambos, 2003; Eisenberg, Neumark-Sztainer, & Paxton, 2006; Kostanski, Fisher, & Gullone, 2004; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003). Earlier studies on adolescents have reported the negative effects of body dissatisfaction on their psychological well-being (Yuan, 2010) and behavioral development manifested in such consequences as eating disorders (Ata, Ludden, & Lally, 2007), low self-esteem (Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar, 2005), and depression (Goldfield et al., 2010). Some researchers have reported a relationship between body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and clothing-related behaviors, such as body-concealing or body-enhancing clothing choices (Kaiser, 1997; Kwon, 1991; Kwon & Parham, 1994). Clothing-related behavior becomes increasingly important throughout adolescence because the clothing one chooses to wear during this time may be a message of self-expression, a means of self-enhancement, or a way to conform to societal standards regarding appearance. Despite the importance of clothing-related behavior in adolescence, the relationship between adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and clothing-related behaviors has been studied only to a limited extent. In the present study, we endeavored to investigate the relationship between adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and their clothing-related behaviors and also to identify the influencing factors on these variables.

In the literature, a positive relationship between adolescent girls’ body mass index (BMI) and body dissatisfaction has been reported frequently and is identified as one of the most important factors in the development of body image (Berg et al., 2007; Jones, 2004; Paxton, Eisenberg, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2006). BMI has been used to diagnose overweight and obese children. BMI does not measure body fat directly, but it is used as a reasonable indicator of body fatness for most children and teens. BMI uses a calculation based on weight and height. Although a healthy weight-for-height ratio does not guarantee a positive self-image, being overweight or obese is a major risk factor associated with negative body image or body dissatisfaction (Jones, 2004; Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Moreover, some researchers reported that sociocultural influences such as parents, peers, and media may have a stronger influence on body image or body satisfaction/dissatisfaction than biological factors such as BMI. According to Stice and Whitenton (2002), girls who perceived pressure to be thin from their social environment demonstrated four times greater risk of body dissatisfaction than those who perceived low levels of pressure to be thin. Considering the rapid growth and changes associated with puberty, teens are especially sensitive to social messages and outside influences concerning their bodies and appearances during that time. Media messages conveying what is considered attractive are largely responsible for creating and reinforcing a preoccupation with physical attractiveness (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002). Previous research findings have shown that relationships exist between increased body dissatisfaction and more frequent television viewing (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Tiggemann, 2006) and frequent magazine reading (Jones, Vigfusdottir, & Lee, 2004; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004). The standard for women, as portrayed by media images, is much thinner today than in the past. As such, repeated exposure to these media images has detrimental effects on self-evaluation and leads viewers to feel a greater level of body dissatisfaction (Trampe, Stapel, & Siero, 2007). Previous research findings have revealed that perceived pressure from the media directly relates to adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction (Knauss, Paxton, & Alsaker, 2007; Schooler, 2008; Stice & Whitenton, 2002).

In addition to media influence, peers also play an important role in the development of adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Gabriel and Gardner (1999) have identified that one’s body image is influenced by one’s social network. Throughout life, we are subjected to social pressures from our peer groups; during adolescence, however, those pressures are especially significant. Adolescents spend more time in the context of their peer networks, becoming keenly aware of their behavior and appearance as evaluated by others (Newman et al., 2006). Evidence from research has shown that girls who are part of friendship groups have similar levels of body image concerns and drives for thinness (Levine & Smolak, 2002). Researchers also showed the negative effect of peer criticism/teasing on body image and body satisfaction for adolescent females (Berg et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2004).

Researchers have provided evidence for the importance of BMI, media exposure, and peer criticism/teasing on adolescents’ satisfaction/dissatisfaction with their bodies; however, questions remain regarding the relative contribution of these variables to adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Limited studies have been completed on the relationship between these factors and adolescents’ clothing-related behaviors. Thus, we aimed to explore the relative importance of BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing for body satisfaction/dissatisfaction of female adolescents and their clothing-related behaviors. A further aim was to examine the influence of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction on clothing-related behaviors.

Theoretical Framework

Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and sociocultural attitudes toward appearance (SATA) served as the theoretical framework for this study to support the influence of sociocultural factors, along with personal physical state, on adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and their clothing-related behaviors. Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978), which is one of the most recognized views regarding the development of body dissatisfaction, is derived from the notion that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. These sociocultural factors include ethnicity, social class, societal culture, family, and peer norms and pressures (Abrams & Stormer, 2002). Furthermore, the degree to which girls and women internalize social standards of attractiveness is related to sociocultural attitudes toward their appearance (SATA) in general (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). One of the vehicles through which girls and women internalize social standards of attractiveness consists of media representations of women and other media messages about attractiveness. Such internalization begins in childhood (Murnen, Smolak, Mills, & Good, 2003) and continues into later years (Morry & Saska, 2001). Previous research has provided evidence that being exposed to messages emphasizing female attractiveness can result, at least for some girls and women, in lower levels of body esteem and body satisfaction (Clark & Tiggeman, 2008; Jones et al., 2004; Morry & Saska, 2001). Women’s body dissatisfaction and lower body esteem stem from the thin body ideal prevalent in the Western societies. Society’s conceptualization of an ultrathin female body ideal, portrayed in mass media, affects the way a woman views her own body. Some women may internalize the message that being thin is good, emphasizing rewards for being attractive and the costs associated with being unattractive (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Henderson-King and Brooks (2009) pointed out that women objectify their own bodies and internalize the objectified gaze that they encounter in media images of women’s bodies and, consequently, learn to relate to their bodies as objects and to closely monitor the appearances of their bodies. According to Morrison, Kalin, and Morrison (2004), as exposure to these mass media images increases, body image evaluation becomes less favorable, and body image investment such as dieting, exercise, and weight control practices becomes more intense. Researchers have also found that women who have been exposed to televised ideal-body images are more likely to say they would engage in a variety of methods to alter their body shape and size, including wearing either a padded or a minimizing bra to create the illusion of having an ideal breast size; they are also more likely to say they would have liposuction, breast surgery, or other types of cosmetic surgery to more permanently change their bodies (Harrison, 2003; Henderson-King & Brooks, 2009). In the current study, we examined the influence of perceived pressure from media on high school adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and their clothing-related behaviors.

Another mechanism through which standards of attractiveness are internalized is the influence of close others, such as parents and friends. Parents and friends transmit messages about the importance of physical attractiveness through their own appearance-related attitudes and behaviors and through appearance-focused conversations and commentary (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). In earlier studies, girls’ negative body evaluations and attempts to lose weight in order to better conform to societal standards of thinness have been associated with the attitudes and actions of parents (Smolak, Levine, & Schermer, 1999) and peers (Dohnt & Tiggeman, 2006; Jones, 2004; Jones et al., 2004). As social reinforcement, such as comments or actions of others, perpetuates the thin body ideal as a standard of beauty for women (Stice, 1998), these appearance subcultures provide a critical context for the development of girls’ and young women’s attitudes about their own physical appearance. In this study, we endeavored to explore the influence of peer teasing/criticism on girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and their clothing-related behaviors.

Media Exposure and Perceived Pressure From Media

In most Western cultures, people are regularly bombarded by mass media images through advertisements, magazines, billboards, and television. These images set the standard of what is considered to be physically attractive in the society. Many researchers have used social comparison theory as a framework for studies and attempted to show the negative effects of media exposure on women and girls. According to Festinger’s social comparison theory (1954) in the context of media imagery, when people look at the images used in magazines and other types of media, they form opinions, compare themselves to those images, and then make self-judgments based on these comparisons. Media images have the potential to cause both an indirect (e.g., the thin body ideal) and a direct (e.g., body image disturbance) effect on body image (Botta, 2000). In a study that examined the effects of appearance-related and nonappearance-related television commercials on adolescent girls, Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2002) found that girls exposed to appearance-related commercials experienced greater dissatisfaction with their own appearances than those who were exposed to nonappearance-related commercials. Later, Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2002) confirmed their earlier findings that exposure to thin-ideal commercials on TV led to significantly greater body dissatisfaction. In 2006, Tiggemann further found that watching soap operas was related to a drive for thinness, internalization of the thin ideal, and unhealthy appearance schemas. More recently, Berg et al. (2007) also revealed that the amount of TV exposure significantly influenced body dissatisfaction. Since the vast majority of images found in fashion and beauty magazines are unattainable and unrealistic, this upward comparison leads to an increase in emotional distress and dissatisfaction with the self. Jones, Vigfusdottir, and Lee (2004) found that magazine exposure was indirectly related to body image dissatisfaction through internalization of media ideals. Berg et al. (2007) also found that magazine exposure was associated with negative body image. In 2007, Knauss et al. found that perceived pressure from media significantly affected adolescents’ levels of body dissatisfaction. This was consistent with findings from an earlier study completed by Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, and Tantleff-Dunn (1999).

Peer Criticism/Teasing

Although every individual is subjected to social pressures in our society, peer pressure becomes progressively more significant during adolescence. As individuals transition into adolescence, they often place a greater emphasis on social messages when making self-evaluations. The peer group serves as an important context in which individuals develop a sense of self-body image and evaluate personal physical attributes based on the opinions of those around them (Jones, 2001, 2004; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003). Ideally, this influence can be a positive one because adolescents who feel more competent and more accepted within their peer group are likely to rely less on destructive social comparisons to evaluate appearance; they instead use their surrounding peer contexts as a means to develop a stronger and more positive sense of self (Newman et al., 2006).

Unfortunately, friends and school acquaintances can also be a significant source of body dissatisfaction through conversations, modeling behaviors, and teasing (Paxton, Schutz, Wertheim, & Muir, 1999). For adolescent girls, peers have an especially important influence on the development of body dissatisfaction, particularly in environments where weight and appearance are emphasized (Lieberman, Gauvin, Bukowski, & White, 2001).

Being teased regarding one’s body has been consistently associated with body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, high depressive symptoms, and suicidal thoughts or tendencies. In 1986, Cash and Green found that women who had been teased about their weight during childhood exhibited more dissatisfaction with their appearances during adulthood. Fabian and Thompson (1989), in their study of pre- and postmenstrual females, found that premenstrual girls’ low body esteem was associated with greater frequency of weight-related teasing and negative emotional consequences. Empirical evidence from existing research has consistently showed a positive relationship between peer teasing about appearance and body dissatisfaction for adolescents (Barker & Galambos, 2003; Eisenberg et al., 2006; Kostanski et al., 2004; Lawler & Nixon, 2011). According to Jones et al. (2004), when one is teased about the absence of desirable appearance traits, it generates a negative evaluation of appearance and potentially an internalization of that evaluation that leads to body dissatisfaction. Berg et al. (2007) also found that weight-related teasing was directly associated with body dissatisfaction for adolescent girls. More recently, Lawler and Nixon (2011) found that peer criticism regarding appearance is an important predictor of body dissatisfaction for both male and female adolescents. As such, being criticized or teased about their appearance by peers significantly impacts adolescents’ body dissatisfaction.

Body Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction and Clothing-Related Behavior

An earlier study done by Sontag and Schlater (1982) indicated that individuals with high levels of body dissatisfaction tend to be less confident about their clothing selection and are less likely to follow trends. Sontag and Schlater also affirmed that clothing can compensate for body dissatisfaction or enhance body satisfactions. In 1990, LaBat and DeLong found that women with higher degrees of body satisfaction had positive attitudes toward the fit of ready-to-wear clothing. In 1991, Kwon suggested that the way one feels about oneself can affect clothing choices, and, reciprocally, the clothing one wears can affect one’s feelings about the self.

Later, Kwon and Parham (1994) found that weight-conscious women and those who see themselves as overweight were more likely to select clothing they believed would camouflage certain parts of their bodies. Researchers also found that clothing is important for adolescents to modify one’s feelings about the self (Dubler & Gurel, 1984; Kwon, 1991). Kaiser (1997) noted that self-feelings about the body play a major role in clothing preferences and attitudes. Kaiser further asserted that clothing can be used either to enhance one’s body satisfaction or to conceal body dissatisfaction. Thus, it is crucial to understand the relationship between adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction and their clothing-related behaviors. Adapted from earlier studies (Kaiser, 1997; Kwon & Parham, 1994; Sontag & Schlater, 1982), the concept of clothing-related behavior used in this study refers to the way in which clothing is used to either enhance or hide one’s body; that is, self-enhancing or body-concealing behavior.

Existing evidence from the research suggested an apparent relationship between BMI and body dissatisfaction. Earlier studies also reported the effect of media pressure and peer pressure on body image in relation to eating disorders or dieting behavior. However, no studies have been done to determine the relative importance of BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing on body satisfaction when considered together, especially in relation to adolescent girls’ clothing-related behaviors. In this vein, the following research hypotheses were formulated.

Hypothesis 1-1: Adolescent girls’ BMIs will have a significant influence on their body satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Hypothesis 1-2: Perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing will have a significant incremental effect over BMI in determining the effect on body satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: Adolescent girls’ BMI, level of perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing will all have a significant influence on their clothing-related behaviors.

Hypothesis 3: Adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction will have a significant influence on their clothing-related behaviors.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The population for the present study consisted of female adolescents from two high schools in a metro area in a southeastern state of the United States. A structured questionnaire was developed to collect data for the study. The study was approved by the institutional review board (IRB). With permission of teachers from high schools, a self-administered questionnaire was distributed by the researchers in classrooms during regular school hours. Students were briefed about the study and given a student consent form with a parental consent form. Individuals who provided both parental consent and student consent were included in the study. A convenience sample of 336 girls between the ages of 15 and 18 (Grades 9–12) completed the research questionnaire. After eliminating those surveys completed incorrectly or missing too many questions, 320 surveys remained for use in the data analysis. The self-reported ethnic background of the participants was Caucasian American (39.7%), Black/African American (25%), Hispanic/Latino American (19.4%), and Asian American (15.9%). The age distribution was approximately 21.3% aged 18, 27.5% aged 17, 21.9% aged 16, and 29.4% aged 15.

Instrument

The first section of the questionnaire consisted of demographic information including age, ethnicity, weight, and height. The BMI, a ratio of weight to height, was calculated by the researchers based on the participants’ self-reported height and weight. Previous research has established that self-reported weight and height have been valid measures of actual weight and height with correlations ranging from .62 to .97 (Field et al., 2001). The BMI was computed using the formula for body mass index (BMI) = weight (kg)/height (m²). The mean BMI among respondents in this study was 22.96 kg/m².

Eight items to measure adolescent girls’ perceived media pressure were adapted from Thompson, Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, and Heinberg (2004). Respondents were asked to indicate on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) how much pressure they feel from media (i.e., magazines and TV) regarding their appearance. Examples of the scale items included “I’ve felt pressure from TV or magazines to lose weight,” “I’ve felt pressure from TV or magazines to change my appearance,” and “I compare my appearance to the appearance of TV and movie stars.” In order to measure peer criticism/teasing, 7 items regarding peer criticisms/teasing were adapted from the study of Jones et al. (2004). Respondents were asked to indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = never to 5 = very often). Examples of the scale items are “My friends tease me or make fun of the size or shape of my body,” “My friends say I should go on a diet,” and “My friends say I would look better if I was thinner.” To measure body satisfaction/dissatisfaction, 5 items that focused on satisfaction with physical traits of their bodies and appearance were adapted from the study of Cash and Pruzinsky (1990) and measured on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Examples of the scale items are “I’m satisfied with my body proportions,” “I’m satisfied with my weight,” and “I’m satisfied with my overall physical appearance.” The last section of the questionnaire measured clothing-related behaviors. A scale was adapted from the research of Kwon and Parham (1994) and Rosen, Srebnik, Salzber, and Wendt (1991). The scale consisted of 11 items that measured behaviors toward clothing in relation to the body, such as body-concealing or body-/self-enhancing clothing choices. Respondents were asked to indicate their answers on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) regarding how they select their clothes. Examples of the scale items included the following: “I usually choose clothes that will impress people,” “I usually select clothes that are stylish,” “I usually choose clothes that boost self-confidence,” “I choose clothing that will hide any figure problems that I feel I have,” and “I tend to pick clothing that is loose and not fitted to the body.”

Results

The data analysis consisted of exploratory factor analysis, hierarchical regression analysis, and bivariate and multiple regression analyses. Cronbach’s α values were computed to assess the internal consistency aspect of reliability of the multi-item scales measuring perceived media pressure (0.93), peer criticism/teasing (0.94), and body satisfaction (0.81). In preparation for testing hypotheses, the scores for perceived media pressure, peer criticism/teasing, and body satisfaction were computed by summating the items in each scale.

A principle component factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted to identify the dimensions of clothing-related behaviors. Factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and items with rotated factor loadings of 0.50 or greater were retained, which is considered statistically and practically significant (Hair, Anderson, Tataham, & Black, 1998). To ensure that each factor would have only one dimension, any items loading on more than one factor with a loading score equal to or greater than 0.40 on each factor were eliminated from the analysis. In addition, variables with communalities less than 0.40 were deleted for insufficient contribution to explaining the variance. Variables that did not meet the above-mentioned criteria were excluded from the analysis. Of the total 11 items, 8 items of clothing-related behaviors were retained for the factor analysis and two factors were identified, self-enhancing behavior and body-concealing behavior. self-enhancing behavior represents the likelihood of adolescents choosing stylish or trendy clothing that boosts self-confidence. body-concealing behavior represents adolescents being uncomfortable with or avoiding certain types of clothing because of a desire to conceal perceived flaws regarding their bodies. A total of 58.2% variance in clothing-related behaviors was explained by these two factors in the study. Cronbach’s α values for self-enhancing behavior and body-concealing behavior were .79 and .70, respectively. The results of factor analysis are reported in Table 1.

Table 1.

Factor Analysis for Clothing-Related Behaviors.

Clothing Behaviors	Item	Eigenvalue	Factor Loading	Variance Explained	Cronbach α
Total					58.20%
Self-enhancing behavior	I usually select clothes based on what’s “in” or a trend	2.54	.86	31.12%	.79
	I usually choose clothes that will impress people		.85
	I usually select clothes that are stylish		.75
	I usually choose clothes that boost self-confidence		.68
Body-concealing behavior	I feel uncomfortable in my clothing because of my body	2.12	.75	27.08%	.70
	I choose clothing that will hide any figure problems that I feel I have (e.g., large thighs)		.74
	I tend to pick clothing that is loose and not fitted to the body		.74
	I prefer clothes that do not draw attention to my figure or shape		.66

Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis 1

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses using the enter method were conducted to examine Hypotheses 1-1 and 1-2. In this analysis, BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing were independent variables, while body satisfaction was a dependent variable. BMI was first entered into the regression equation (Hypothesis 1-1) and then two sociocultural variables of perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing were entered into the equation (Hypothesis 1-2). In this way, the correlations between BMI and the two sociocultural variables were partialled out of the regression analyses, allowing the researcher to determine the incremental effects of sociocultural variables over BMI in predicting adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

BMI was first entered into the regression equation alone in order to examine the impact of BMI on body satisfaction. The regression model was significant, with F(1, 317) = 10.20 and p < .01, indicating 3.1% of the variance in the body satisfaction were explained by BMI alone. Thus, Hypothesis 1-1 was supported. Then, perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing were entered into the regression equation in order to determine the incremental effects of perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing over BMI on body satisfaction (Hypothesis 1-2). The overall regression model was significant, with F(3, 317) = 51.62 and p < .001, indicating that 33% of the variance in adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction were explained by BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing. In this hierarchical regression model, significant F change was p < .0001, suggesting significant incremental effects of perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing over BMI in determining the effect on adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Thus, H 1-2 was supported. The test of the relative contributions of independent variables to explain adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction showed that perceived media pressure (β = |−.47|, p < .001) was the strongest and a significant determinant of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction, followed by peer criticism/teasing (β = |−.22|, p < .001). Both perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing negatively influenced adolescent girls’ body satisfaction, implying that body dissatisfaction increases when the level of perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing rises. However, when BMI was entered into the regression equation with sociocultural factors (perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing), BMI was not a significant factor that influenced adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. This result suggested that perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing are more important to adolescent girls’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction than BMI. The hierarchical regression analysis results for Hypotheses 1-1 and 1-2 are reported in Table 2.

Table 2.

Hierarchical Regression Analyses Results for Hypotheses 1-1 and 1-2.

Variables	Body Satisfaction
	Model 1 (β)	Model 2 (β)
BMI	−.18**	−.05
Perceived media pressure		−.47***
Peer criticism/teasing		−.22***
R ²	.031	.330
F	10.20**	51.62***

Note. BMI = body mass index. Independent variables were BMI, perceived media pressure, peer criticism/teasing; dependent variable was body satisfaction.

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

Hypothesis 2

Two sets of multiple regression analyses were implemented to examine the influence of BMI and two sociocultural variables—perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing—on clothing-related behaviors (Hypothesis 2). In these analyses, the independent variables were BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing. The dependent variable in each multiple regression analysis was self-enhancing and body-concealing behavior. The regression model was significant, with F(3, 318) = 3.41 and p < .05, indicating that 3.1% of the variance in self-enhancing behavior were explained by these three variables. The test of the relative contributions of independent variables to explain adolescent girls’ self-enhancing behavior showed that perceived media pressure was the only significant determinant (β = |.19|, p < .01), indicating that respondents tend to select trendy and stylish clothes to boost self-confidence and impress other people when the level of pressure from media rises. The regression model for the relationship between BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer criticism/teasing and body-concealing behavior was significant, with F(3, 315) = 19.45 and p < .001, indicating that 15.8% of the variance in body-concealing behavior were explained by these three variables. The test of the relative contributions of independent variables to explain adolescent girls’ body-concealing behavior showed that two sociocultural variables—perceived media pressure (β = |.24|, p < .001) and peer criticism/teasing (β = |.16|, p < .01)—were significant determinants. Both perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing positively influenced adolescent girls’ body-concealing, clothing-related behavior, suggesting that they tend to choose loose-fitting clothes that can hide their figures when the level of pressure from media and peer teasing/criticism rises. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. However, BMI did not significantly influence adolescent girls’ clothing-related behaviors in either self-enhancing or body-concealing behaviors. The multiple regression analyses results for Hypothesis 2 are reported in Table 3.

Table 3.

Multiple Regression Analyses Results for Hypothesis 2.

Variables	Clothing-Related Behaviors
	Self-Enhancing Behavior (β)	Body-Concealing Behavior (β)
BMI	.01	.12
Perceived media pressure	.19**	.24***
Peer criticism/teasing	−.10	.16**
R²	.031	.158
F	3.41*	19.45***

Note. BMI = body mass index. Independent variables for each multiple regression analysis were BMI, perceived media pressure, peer criticism/teasing; dependent variable for each multiple regression analysis was self-enhancing behavior and body-concealing behavior.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Hypothesis 3

Two sets of bivariate regression analyses were conducted to examine the influence of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction on clothing-related behaviors (Hypothesis 3). In these analyses, the independent variable was body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. The dependent variable in each bivariate regression analysis was self-enhancing and body-concealing behaviors. The regression model that predicts self-enhancing behavior (β = |.22|) was significant, with F(1, 318) = 15.79 and p < .01, indicating that 4.7% of the variance in self-enhancing behavior were explained by body satisfaction. When adolescent girls’ body satisfaction increased, their self-enhancing, clothing-related behavior rose. The regression model that predicts body-concealing behavior (β = |−.43|) was significant, with F(1, 315) = 69.93 and p < .001, indicating that 18.2% of the variance in body-concealing behavior was explained by body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. When adolescent girls’ body satisfaction decreased, their body-concealing, clothing-related behavior increased. Thus, Hypothesis 3 was supported.

Discussion and Conclusions

Researchers have documented the importance of BMI, media, and peer criticism/teasing on adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction; however, one limitation in the existing literature is that no researcher has explored the relative contribution of these variables to adolescents’ body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Thus, with our study, we extended the previous literature by testing the relative importance of these variables for body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. An additional shortcoming, especially in the field of clothing and textiles, is that no researcher has investigated the impact of such individual and sociocultural factors on clothing-related behaviors. Our findings highlight the significance of investigating the relative importance of an individual’s physical state (BMI) and sociocultural factors, such as perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing. Thus, the findings of the present study contribute to the literature on body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors in the field of clothing and textiles.

When examining the relative importance of these three variables on adolescent girls’ body satisfaction, BMI was found to be the least important factor. When entered into the regression equation alone, BMI was found to be a significant determinant of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction, a result consistent with the findings of earlier studies (Berg et al., 2007; Jones, 2004; Paxton et al., 2006). However, when BMI was entered into the regression equation with sociocultural factors—perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing—BMI was not a significant factor that influenced adolescent girls’ body satisfaction. This observation is particularly interesting, because the result contradicts both the existing literature and common knowledge. Earlier researchers reported that the long- and short-term effects of body-related teasing might be devastating to an individual’s body esteem and emotional well-being (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Eisenberg, Neumark-Sztainer, & Story, 2003). The result of this study, however, demonstrates that while high BMI may play a role in body satisfaction to a certain extent, its influence of BMI alone may not be as strong when attached to sociocultural factors such as perceived media influence and peer pressure. This finding suggests that sociocultural factors are more important to one’s appearance or body satisfaction than one’s physical state, implying that adolescent girls may be vulnerable to the social context of appearance and may perceive great pressure to conform to cultural ideals endorsed in the media or approved by their peers. Thus, although many studies on body satisfaction/dissatisfaction addressed the importance of BMI, its influence should be considered alongside sociocultural factors such as media exposure and peer criticism/teasing.

A significant negative relationship was found between perceived media pressure and adolescent girls’ body satisfaction. This suggests that adolescents who feel a greater pressure to achieve a sociocultural standard of beauty tend to be less satisfied with their bodies, perceiving them more critically. This result further supports the notion that body image relies heavily on social comparisons of physical appearance (Newman et al., 2006) and is consistent with the findings of earlier studies about media influence on body dissatisfaction (Schooler, 2008; Tiggemann, 2006; Trampe et al., 2007). A significant negative relationship was also found between the frequency of peer criticism/teasing and adolescent girls’ body satisfaction; specifically, the greater the frequency with which one experiences body-related teasing, the lower that individual’s satisfaction with her own body. This finding resonates with other research that have reported that peer criticism or teasing about appearance increases body dissatisfaction (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2004; Lawler & Nixon, 2011). When the relative importance of perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing was examined, however, we found that perceived media pressure had a greater negative impact on body satisfaction than peer criticism/teasing. This implies that perceived pressure from media has a greater detrimental effect upon body satisfaction than peer criticism/teasing.

The results of this study supply further evidence that perceived media pressure affects adolescent girls’ selections of stylish and trendy clothing (self-enhancing behavior). However, peer criticism/teasing was not a significant determinant for self-enhancing behavior. The results also showed that perceived media pressure and peer criticism/teasing were critical determinants of body-concealing behavior. Perceived media pressure was the most significant factor that influenced selection of such clothes that can camouflage body figure or shape (body-concealing behavior), yet still can be stylish and trendy, to boost self-confidence and impress other people. However, BMI did not demonstrate significant influence on either self-enhancing or body-concealing behaviors. This result supports Thompson and Stice’s (2001) notion that individuals cognitively buy into social appearance standards and try to commit to behaviors that produce an approximation of such ideals, incorporating those standards into their personal belief systems. Greater exposure to media images of unrealistically thin females and commitment to societal appearance standards may promote adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction due to discrepancies between one’s current body shape and the physical ideal. In addition, peer teasing or criticism may also produce a more negative evaluation of one’s personal appearance and thus promote body discontent through the internationalization of social appearance ideals. For these reasons, some adolescent girls may try to hide perceived body problems by choosing loose-fitting clothing that does not draw attention to their bodies.

Taken as a whole, the results of this study suggest that sociocultural influence is more important than an individual’s physical state regarding adolescent girls’ body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors. Of the two sociocultural factors, the media is a more critical factor than peer criticism/teasing in affecting adolescent girls’ body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors. Based on our findings, for adolescent girls, the peer group and media are two important vehicles for the transmission of sociocultural messages regarding appearance. Criticism or teasing about appearance by their peers, alongside perceived media pressure, is more likely to reinforce adolescent girls’ commitment to emulate the thin images portrayed in the media. This, in turn, negatively impacts body satisfaction and increased body-concealing, clothing-related behavior.

A significant positive relationship was found between adolescent body satisfaction and self-enhancing behavior. The higher the level of satisfaction with one’s body, the more likely adolescents will select stylish and trendy clothing that boosts self-confidence. However, a significant negative relationship was found between body satisfaction and body-concealing behavior. Specifically, the greater the dissatisfaction with the body, the higher the level of body-concealing behavior. Instead of selecting stylish or trendy clothing, adolescents who experience greater dissatisfaction may choose loose-fitting clothing that covers up certain parts of their bodies or does not draw attention to their bodies. These findings are in line with those of previous research, which revealed that individuals with high levels of body dissatisfaction are less likely to follow trends (Sontag & Schlater, 1982) and are more likely to select clothing that camouflages certain parts of their bodies (Kwon & Parham, 1994).

This research contributes to the literature on the development of body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors among adolescent girls. The results, in particular, provide an expanded understanding of sociocultural influence during adolescence. However, like other empirical studies, this study has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting its results. We used a convenience sample in a metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the United States. Therefore, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all the U.S. adolescents. Researchers need to examine a larger sample that includes other geographical areas of the United States. We included only adolescent girls, excluding boys. In the future, researchers should include adolescent boys and explore the differences between adolescent boys and girls among the variables in the current study. In addition, researchers also need to include other variables that might shed light on adolescent girls’ body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors. For example, it would be interesting to incorporate other variables such as socioeconomic status, parental level of education, and family relationships (i.e., parents, siblings) and study how they affect adolescents’ clothing-related behaviors. Furthermore, ethnicity could have an influence on the importance of BMI, perceived media pressure, and peer factors in relation to body satisfaction and clothing-related behaviors. As we have substantial ethnic variety in the sample of the current study, the effects of ethnicity will be reported in a subsequent article.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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