Participation in Roller Derby,the Influence on Body Image

Abstract

Women's flat track roller derby consists of two teams vying for points played on an oval track, and wearing quad skates. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact participation in roller derby has on body image. An online survey was used to gather data from members of roller derby leagues (n = 1597) in the United States. The survey contained quantitative questions from the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) along with qualitative questions. Based upon the data, a typical respondent was Caucasian, 20 to 40 years of age, heterosexual, married/domestic partnership, and has a post-secondary degree. The null hypothesis was rejected as there was a significant difference when comparing means of the MBSRQ prior to joining and currently. Certain MBSRQ scales indicated a negative correlation with BMI.

Keywords

roller derby body image sport athletic

Body image has been defined as the collection of beliefs and attitudes individuals have concerning their appearance (Barry & Grilo, 2001; Huange, Norman, Zabinski, Calfas, & Patrick, 2006). Negative body image has been associated with several measures of harmful psychological well-being, such as a higher likelihood of anxiety, depression, impaired sexual functioning, shame, and low self-esteem (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Clark & Tiggermann, 2008; Gillen, Lefkowitz, & Shearer, 2006; Wiederman, 2002) as well as a variety of negative weight management strategies, including a higher incidence of compulsive exercise and disordered eating (Lee & Johnson, 2009; McDonald & Thompson, 1992). The purpose of this study was to investigate how participation in roller derby affects the body image of the participants. To address perception of body image, scales from the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) were used: Appearance Evaluation and Orientation, Fitness Orientation, Health Evaluation and Orientation, and Body Satisfaction.

Roller derby began in the 1920s as roller skating races. In 1937, the game evolved into a physical competition between the two teams. Roller derby was televised in the late 1940s through the mid-1970s with many boom-and-bust cycles. There were several attempts to revive the sport in the 1980s and 1990s through theatrical television programs, which were short lived. In 2003, the Texas Rollergirls formed and started the current roller derby movement. Internationally, roller derby is one of the fastest growing women’s sports. In 2006, Roller Derby Worldwide (2012) had 160 leagues registered. Today, 1,234 leagues are registered. The current version of roller derby consists of two teams vying for points played on a flat or banked oval track.

Literature Review

There have been many studies devoted to body image in the research literature (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009; Koyuncu, Tok, Canpolat, & Catikkas, 2010; Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004; Kwon & Shim, 1999; Robinson & Ferraro, 2004; Rudd & Carter, 2006; Rudd & Lennon, 2000), in scholarly books (Damhorst, Miller-Spillman, & Michelman, 2005; Fallon, Katzman, & Wooley, 1994; Ussher, 1997; Weitz, 2010), and in the popular press (Bloom, 2011; Friedman, 2010; Grinberg, 2012). Researchers have found that females are at a higher risk of negative body image than males (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009; Elgin & Pritchard, 2006).

According to Festinger’s (1954) theory of social comparison, people have an innate desire to evaluate themselves, and they do this by comparing themselves with others when objective standards are unavailable. Kozar and Damhorst (2009) stated that social comparison theory emphasizes the individual’s use of others for self-reflection, self-evaluation, and self-perception. Social comparative theory has been used in body image research, and it was found that women tend to socially compare themselves on the basis of appearance (Martin & Kennedy, 1993; Richins, 1991; Thompson & Heinberg, 1993). Sociocultural norm theory suggests that one’s culture is an extremely powerful determinant of body image, as it is culture that creates standards of beauty by which one judges his or her body (Holmqvist & Frisén, 2010; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Individuals use these standards as a benchmark by which to judge themselves and be satisfied or dissatisfied (Jung & Lee, 2006), which is associated with social comparison.

Research in the sport of roller derby is limited, and an extensive review of literature revealed no studies examining body image and roller derby. Authors have explored roller derby from different perspectives such as roller derby and the media (Kearney, 2011), femininity, (Carlson, 2010; Finley, 2010; Storms, 2008), do it yourself ethos (Beaver, 2012), “alternative femininity” (Peluso, 2010), and the relationship with sport and popular music (Pavlidis, 2012). Local and national media outlets have been documenting the growth of roller derby through participants, league profiles, and historical writings (Barbee & Cohen, 2010). A very recent development is the video documentation of participation in roller derby league through interviews. These are published on the Internet (Bradley, 2012).

There are related articles examining other sports and body image. For example, Downeya, Reelb, SooHoob, and Zerbib (2010) studied body image norms and belly dancing. They found belly dance offers members broad and inclusive body image norms, a lack of pressure for body image conformity, and high levels of body satisfaction among dancers. Overall, the participants indicated that belly dance has a positive influence on body image, and dancers have generally high body satisfaction even when they perceive some discrepancy between their own body type and social ideals. Fields and Comstock (2008) explored women and the sport of rugby, which is comparable to roller derby in that it is a fast-paced, aggressive contact sport. They found that participation in rugby increased players’ physical and emotional strength, and they became more self-confident and proud of themselves.

Koyuncu, Tok, Canpolat, and Catikkas (2010) found female athletes feel less social physique anxiety and more body image dissatisfaction. They concluded that lower social physique anxiety and higher body image dissatisfaction in female athletes may stem from the fact that physical activity participation is associated with increased self-esteem and decreased mood disturbance, which are related to positive body image. Johns (1996) and Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, and Kauer (2004) found that participating in sports created pressures that can lead to disordered eating, excessive exercising, and participating with injuries.

Roller Derby Basics

Flat track roller derby is a high-contact sport played on an oval track with members wearing standard gear including quad roller skates. Each team is composed of four Blockers, which make up the pack, a Pivot, and one Jammer. Each game or bout is comprised of two 30-min periods of play, and each jam is 2-min long. Points are earned when the Jammer passes each opposing player after their initial pass through the pack. Blockers either block opposing jammers or blockers or assist their own Jammer through the pack using four types of blocks. Players can assist their teammates by using an arm, hip, or leg whip in which a player transfers her speed to a teammate. Players are given penalties for illegal hits, and a player may be ejected from the bout if she is sent to the penalty box 7 times (A. Eklund, personal communication, March 10, 2012).¹

The Women’s Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA, 2012) is one of the governing bodies of roller derby. WFTDA has established minimum skill requirements and other standards for the sport including the method of play. Every skater is required to wear protective gear. Leagues are created by interested women who recruit others and create an organization structure with volunteer leaders, managers, and committees. A league may have 10–130 members. Each league has bylaws and policies, which may include practice and bout attendance requirements, codes of conduct, new skater policies, skating and bout rules, dismissal policies, and insurance requirements.

An important part of belonging to roller derby is the player’s roller derby name and number, which are chosen after graduating from new skater programs and completing a probation period. Derby names and numbers are registered on an online database (Elaina & Soylent Mean, n.d.). Over 36,000 names and numbers are currently registered. The name and number are approved and monitored, and rules are in place so that there are no duplicates, no names ending in verbs, and no similarly spelled or pronounced names. Members are then referred to by their Derby Name. Members also adopt a method of dress that typifies their roller derby personality, a persona. Most leagues have a uniform top. Skaters choose what to wear on the bottom, such as skirts, hot pants, fitted capris, or basketball shorts. Further accessories are added, such as leg warmers, fishnet stockings, customized tights, and knee-high socks. Numerous skaters choose to wear makeup and face paint; this can range from wearing slightly more than usual to a full mask of paint and glitter. National level leagues usually have full uniforms. Getting ready for a bout is called Derbying Up, and a final choice of body adornment is often called a boutfit (A. Eklund, personal communication, March 2012).

Method

The purpose of this study was to investigate how participation in roller derby affects the body image of the participants.

Research Question 1: Does participation in roller derby affect body image?

Research Question 2: What impact does participation in roller derby have on body image?

A four-part questionnaire was developed; data were collected using an online survey instrument in March 2012. There were four sections in the survey: (1) demographics, (2) roller derby participation, (3) body image using the MBSRQ (Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986), and (4) impact on body image. Closed-ended questions were developed to gather data regarding demographics and roller derby participation. Demographic variables included zip code, age, relationship status, sexual orientation, education, and profession. Participation included length of membership, number of bouts, and amount of money spent on roller derby gear and equipment. Body image was measured using six subscales of the MBSRQ: (a) Appearance Evaluation, (b) Appearance Orientation, (c) Health Evaluation, (d) Health Orientation, (e) Heath Evaluation, and (f) Body Area Satisfaction. The MBSRQ was used to test the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: There is a significant difference between the perception of body image prior to joining roller derby and currently.

The MBSRQ subscales ask individuals to rate themselves from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1) using a series of statements pertaining to how they think, feel, and behave toward their bodies. In the Body Area Satisfaction subscale, respondents are asked to report their satisfaction (5 = very satisfied to 1 = very dissatisfied) with eight areas of their bodies (i.e., face, hair, lower torso, middle torso, upper torso, muscle tone, weight, height, and overall body appearance). Participants responded to the questions retrospectively prior to joining roller derby and then answered the same questions pertaining to their current perception. Respondents provided their height and weight, which were converted to inches and pounds, and their body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) BMI calculation (weight (lb)/[height (in)]² × 703). To delve further into the impact on body image, an open response question was asked regarding the impact of roller derby on respondents’ body image.

The survey was pilot tested using roller derby participants, and revisions were made based upon their feedback. Each participant completed the questionnaire and was asked to identify issues related to clarity and logic for the questions themselves as well as the sequencing and flow of the questionnaire. After each participant, the researchers updated the questionnaire based upon feedback. After clarity and logic issues were addressed, a final draft of the questionnaire was prepared and sent to Qualtrics for data collection.

Cluster sampling was used for this study. A list of roller derby leagues was obtained through Roller Derby Worldwide, an online compilation of leagues. At the time of this study, 615 leagues were listed in the United States. This list contained links to either a league Facebook page or a league website. Each link was opened and further contact information was sought, such as an e-mail address or phone number. Phone number contacts were phoned and e-mails obtained. Leagues were eliminated based upon the type of league (junior or coed) or invalid contact information. Each league contact was sent an e-mail asking for his or her assistance.

E-mails were sent to 583 leagues. Respondents self-selected, and 1,597 league members responded and completed a minimum of 99% of the survey. It should be noted that the total respondents reported in the results vary based upon an individual’s question–response percentage. However, the researchers agreed to include respondents who had completed over 99% of the survey. Members of the 418 U.S. leagues were represented. Descriptive statistical analysis was completed for demographic data and responses to the aforementioned closed response items using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Frequencies, means, and standard deviations were calculated. The responses to open-ended questions were downloaded to an Excel spreadsheet for ease of analysis. Lengthy responses were split into phrases, so that specific thoughts could be isolated and then coded (Saldana, 2010). The researchers manually coded the qualitative data individually, compared coding results to assure accuracy, and finalized coding of qualitative data. Categories emerged based upon the verbiage of respondents. The responses were further analyzed to form clusters. In order to address reliability, the researchers collaborated after Phase 1 to validate the categories and themes identified. In sum, the open response data were coded into categories, themes emerged from coding, and clustering of themes was completed.

Results

Demographics

Respondents were located in every state and the District of Columbia. WFTDA regional assignments were used to categorize the leagues by state; it has four regions in the United States. Thirty-five percent (n = 558) were from the west region, 24% (n = 375) from the east, 23% (n = 371) from the north central, and 18% (n = 290) from the south central. Participation was dominated by California with 12.1% (n = 193) of the total respondents; Colorado had the second-most respondents at 5.33% (n = 85), and Pennsylvania the third at 5.27% (n = 84).

The mean age of the respondents was 31.9 (SD = 6.59). The 20- to 29-year-olds and 30- to 39-year-olds accounted for 84.9% (n = 1,207) of the respondents. White/Caucasian was the dominant race by a large majority, 86.9% (n = 1,384). Respondents were asked their sexual orientation; 78.0% (n = 1,240) were heterosexual with another 19.5% (n = 295) identifying as either homosexual or bisexual. Fifty-five respondents (3.5%) indicated “other,” which included pansexual, “Hetero-flexible,” celibate, or “I don’t do labels.” Almost half of the respondents were married or in a domestic partnership (49.2%, n = 782). A further 23.5% (n = 374) were single, and 21.4% (n = 340) were cohabitating (not married or domestic partnership). A question was asked regarding children; 38% (n = 611) had children living with them.

The highest level of education obtained by the respondents was most frequently postsecondary degrees; other levels included associate degree (10.1%, n = 160), 2-year degree (7.5%, n = 119), 4-year degree (35.5%, n = 565), and graduate degree (21.1%, n = 336). Another 21% (n = 334) had completed some college/university; 4.5% (n = 72) had completed high school or general equivalency diploma; and 0.3% completed some high school.

The most frequent types of professions were professional/technical (30.3%, n = 478), manager/official/proprietor (11.6%, n = 183), student (9.6%, n = 152), clerical (8.8%, n = 139), and a tie between teacher/professor and service worker (7.2%, n = 113). Other professions indicated by the respondents were “Graphic Artist,” “Law Enforcement,” “Social Worker,” and “Self-Employed.” Household income was predominately less than US$100,000 (87.8%, n = 1,325), from US$25,000 to US$49,999 (30.1%, n = 470), and from US$50,000 to US$74,999 (22.3%, n = 348).

Roller Derby Profile

The experience level in roller derby was identified using the length of membership and number of bouts in which respondents skated. The respondents were fairly evenly distributed in their length of membership from fresh meat (35.7%; n = 570), 1–2 years (31.2%; n = 497), to more than 2 years (33.1%; n = 525) of roller derby experience. The number of bouts showed a wide range but even distribution: no bout experience, 21.9% (n = 349); 1–5 bouts, 28.1% (n = 448); 6–15 bouts, 25.8% (n = 412); and more than 15 bouts, 24.3% (n = 388).

A further indication of experience and also commitment is shown in the amount spent on roller derby gear. The most frequent response to the amount participants spent on any one roller derby related purchase was US$26–$50 at 34.8% (n = 556) followed by US$51–$75 at 26.1% (n = 417). Respondents on average spent more total dollars last year on roller derby apparel than nonroller derby apparel (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Apparel spending comparison.

BMI

The majority of the respondents were overweight (31.2%; n = 492) or obese (24.1%; n = 380). However, 43.5% (n = 686) of the respondents fell in the ideal weight range and 18.5 (1.2%; n = 19) were underweight. In 2011, the Kaiser Family Foundation (2011) reported 56.6% of U.S. women were overweight or obese. Our respondents in the overweight and obese categories totaled 55.3%, which is consistent with the national average.

Research Question 1: Does participation in roller derby affect body image?

Ninety-seven percent (97%; n = 1,535) indicated roller derby had a positive influence on their body image. Further, data were collected addressing body image using the MBSRQ scales: Appearance Evaluation, Appearance Orientation, Health Evaluation, Health Orientation, Heath Evaluation (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree), and Body Area Satisfaction (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied). Analysis included descriptive statistics and addressing the following hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the perception of body image prior to joining roller derby and currently.¹ In Table 1, Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) items and scales are presented with their respective mean and standard deviation prior to joining roller derby and currently. In order to address the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the scale and mean scores prior to joining roller derby and currently, a paired sample t-test analysis was conducted. The results of the paired sample t-test found that 1 item, “It is/was important that I always look(ed) good,” and scale, Appearance Orientation, were found to not be significantly different prior to roller derby and currently. Based upon the overwhelming number of items that were significantly different upon analysis, the null hypothesis was rejected. It is interesting to note the means of the items and scales increased from prior to roller derby and currently except for 3 items on the Appearance Evaluation scale. The mean decreased from prior to currently.

Table 1.

Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) Scale and Item Analysis.

	Prior to Roller Derby		Currently
Scale and Items	M	SD	M	SD
Appearance Evaluation (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)	2.78	0.782	3.48	0.715
My body was/is sexually appealing	2.93	1.030	3.65	0.892
I like(d) my looks just the way they are/were	2.71	1.018	3.39	0.954
Most people (would have) consider(ed) me good looking	3.34	0.829	3.67	0.711
I like(d) the way I look without my clothes on	2.37	1.134	3.27	1.045
I like(d) the way my clothes fit me	2.55	1.049	3.44	0.959
Appearance Orientation (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)*	3.10	0.592	3.12	0.566*
Before going out in public, I always notice(d) how I looked	3.91	0.961	3.49	0.940
I check(ed) my appearance in a mirror whenever I could	2.90	1.172	2.81	1.048
I did/do not care what people thought/think about my appearance	2.60	1.029	3.24	1.063
It is/was important that I always look(ed) good*	2.99	1.008	2.95	0.929*
Fitness Orientation (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)	2.68	0.981	4.00	0.624
It was/is important that I had/have superior physical strength	2.47	1.099	3.77	0.954
My physical endurance was/is good	2.52	1.228	4.03	0.783
I (would have) pass(ed) most physical fitness tests	2.89	1.253	3.97	0.888
I did/do things to increase my physical strength/stamina	2.88	1.163	4.24	0.643
Health Evaluation (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)
I was/am a physically healthy person	3.00	1.105	3.91	1.197
Health Orientation (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)	2.82	0.579	3.97	0.604
I had/have deliberately develop(ed) healthy lifestyle	2.73	1.163	3.93	0.832
I knew/know a lot about physical fitness	3.12	1.162	3.93	0.770
Body Area Satisfaction (5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied)	2.90	0.618	3.56	0.583
Face (facial features, complexion)	3.49	0.934	3.79	0.826
Hair (color, thickness, texture)	3.81	0.949	3.99	0.847
Lower torso (buttocks, hips, thighs, legs)	2.55	1.128	3.65	0.995
Mid torso (waist, stomach)	2.16	1.047	2.98	1.076
Upper torso (chest or breasts, shoulders, arms)	2.87	1.080	3.57	0.905
Muscle tone	2.49	0.954	3.55	0.877
Weight	2.27	1.026	3.04	1.025
Height	3.53	0.986	3.82	0.854
Overall appearance	2.95	0.921	3.68	0.778

*p < .001.

Further analysis using multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to investigate the influence of BMI, length of time in roller derby, and age (dependent variables); scale means prior to roller derby and currently were the independent variables. There was a significant influence for BMI, F (12, 1,584) = 2.68, p < .0005; Wilks’s λ = .125, partial ∊² = .875, and age, F (12, 1,584) = 1.464, p < .05; Wilks’s λ = .947, partial ∊² = .014). The influence of length of time was not significant. An analysis of variance was performed for BMI and age (independent variables) and the MBSRQ scales (dependent). The results addressing the influence of BMI indicate that 10 of the 12 scales were significantly different (p < .0005; see Table 2). The null hypothesis (BMI does not affect body image) was rejected for 10 of the 12 scales. Current Appearance Evaluation, F = 5.002; p < .05, and Prior Health Orientation, F = 5.034; p < .05, had an influence based upon the age of the participants (see Table 3).

Table 2.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Testing for Differences Among Age Ranges and Body Mass Index (BMI) Weight Classifications.

	F
Scales	Age	BMI
Scales	df = 4	df = 3
Prior Appearance Evaluation	1.702	94.476**
Current Appearance Evaluation	5.002*	71.423**
Prior Appearance Orientation	2.186	1.869
Current Appearance Orientation	1.733	0.308
Prior Fitness Orientation	2.304	60.582**
Current Fitness Orientation	1.299	62.026**
Prior Health Evaluation	3.730	34.448**
Current Health Evaluation	1.552	39.516**
Prior Heath Orientation	5.034*	60.710**
Current Health Orientation	0.763	85.387**
Prior Body Satisfaction	0.520	44.430**
Current Body Satisfaction	3.336	45.227**

Note. BMI = body mass index.

*p < .05. **p < 001.

Table 3.

Membership Length, BMI, and Age Analysis of Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) Scales Using Pearson Correlation.

	Membership Length	BMI	Age
Prior Appearance Evaluation	.052	−.387**	−.015
Current Appearance Evaluation	.011	−.348**	−.116**
Prior Appearance Orientation	−.025	−.045	−.054*
Current Appearance Orientation	−.025	−.009	−.040
Prior Fitness Orientation	−.013	−.300**	.048
Current Fitness Orientation	.092^**	−.312**	−.046
Prior Health Evaluation	−.014	−.353**	.076**
Current Health Evaluation	.130**	−.304**	.026
Prior Heath Orientation	−.014	−.215**	.099**
Current Health Orientation	.130^**	−.249**	−.010
Prior Body Satisfaction	.054*	−.271**	.003
Current Body Satisfaction	.053*	−.281**	−.085**

Note. BMI = body mass index.

Correlation statistics are not reported comparing the MSRBQ scales as the purpose is not to analyze the MSRBQ.

*p < .05. **p < .001.

A correlation was conducted to address the degree and direction of the relationship between the scales and BMI, length of time in roller derby, and age. The scale mean was used for this analysis. The BMI negatively correlated with the Appearance and Health Evaluation, Fitness and Orientation, and Body Area Satisfaction scales at a medium level. As the BMI increased from underweight to normal, overweight, and finally obese, there was a decrease in the respondents’ scores, indicating that as weight increases there is a subsequent slight decrease in body image.

Length of time in roller derby had a small positive correlation with respondents’ current Fitness Orientation and Health Orientation. This correlation indicates that as the length of membership in roller derby increases, there is a subsequent increase in the respondents’ health and fitness. Age also had a small correlation with Appearance Evaluation currently and Appearance Orientation and Fitness Orientation prior to joining. It is interesting to note the items correlating with age would seem to indicate that as one ages there is a decrease of concern in Appearance Evaluation or Orientation.

Research Question 2: What impact does participation in roller derby have on body image?

The results of the content analysis of the open response questions revealed insight into how participating in roller derby has impacted body image. Three main themes emerged: (1) the athletic body, (2) body acceptance, and (3) clothing choices. Further clusters were revealed within each theme.

The Athletic Body

The athletic body was a theme that emerged with the idea that the body could be a tool: “I now see my body as a TOOL for the sport rather than an object for display;” and “I just think about how I can make my body stronger to become a better athlete and do better.” One respondent mentioned letting go of her body image issues: “My goal is to be a good athlete so I have let some of my body issues go.” Many comments were focused on the improvement in physicality and athleticism.

Further clusters emerged addressing developing muscles and having a healthy and active lifestyle: “Whereas before I just wanted to get THIN, now I want to be a muscle-bound powerhouse of strength!”; “I was in shape before, but now I’m more muscular;” “I see my body as more than something to look at. What it can DO is important now too.” One respondent indicated that the muscle development and the changes in their bodies were a topic of discussion:

One of my derby sisters and I talk about this regularly. We suddenly have muscles in places we never had them before. We find ourselves acting like 16-year-old boys, flexing in mirrors and asking people to feel our muscles. It’s silly, but I have found a new love for my body that I never had before and it’s really nice.

Respondents discussed focusing on a healthy and active lifestyle with weight loss being less important: “I have become focused on a healthy, active lifestyle, rather than simply trying to lose weight” and “It also has made me aim for health for health’s sake, not because I’m thinking about an unhealthy road leading to me getting fat. My motivations for eating well and taking care of myself are POSITIVE instead of NEGATIVE.” Additional respondents indicated major improvement in health: “No more asthma” and “I’m no longer borderline diabetic after being in derby for a yr.” These comments are illustrative of two ailments identified as improving or gone due to roller derby activity. Individuals noted how their depression and panic attacks have been alleviated, and in one case a respondent “cease(d) taking anti-depressants.”

Some respondents acknowledged that they are more critical of their bodies, but it was from a positive, health conscious perspective: “Even though I am more critical of my body now, it is in a GOOD way” and “Though I do obsess about my body image more now, it’s in a good way and I’m following through with my halfhearted efforts at health and fitness that I previously had.”

A negative impact on body image and a higher awareness of weight and fitness were noticed but with an emphasis on muscle:

While I think that roller derby is overall positive for women’s body image, personally I have taken my athletic career very seriously and I know that I need to be more conscious of health and weight in order to be more competitive.

I have developed more strength and the tools to live a healthy lifestyle but I am able to obsess more about my weight and fitness now to the detriment of other areas of my personality because it is supported by the fact that I play a sport and am supposed to be athletic and competitive.

Body Acceptance

Body Acceptance was typified by “acceptance of my body—(and) not afraid to show it.” Body acceptance was reinforced by teammates, which affected the individual’s attitude. Respondents indicated that through skating, they accepted parts of their bodies they had previously criticized:

Roller derby made me feel SO much better about my body. I always thought my butt was too big beforehand, but all the girls on my team compliment it ALL the time. And that’s just one example! I’ve also grown more fit and thus feel more comfortable in my body.

I have let go of unrealistic body images I had for myself and had to accept and like that even when I get the tone and lose the fat I want I will still be a “big” girl and that there isn’t anything wrong with that and I can still be beautiful and not be this skinny mini miserable girl.

Specifically respondents commented that they did not want to be “skinny” as it is not beneficial to the sport.

I feel like I don’t have to be super skinny [because] that is not [going] help me with my game. I like the fact that I am a bigger muscular girl. I used to hate my body, specifically my arms … I have huge shoulders and arms, but I am as strong as an ox and I LOVE that about me now …. It also made me realize I don’t want to [be] ‘thin’ if it means losing my shapely body.

Respondents acknowledged the sport and teammates are accepting of all body types:

Derby is the ONLY place I have ever been where I walked into a room full of strangers the first day and did NOT feel self-conscious about my body. Acceptance of all shapes and sizes was apparent before I even spoke to anyone.

Seeing other women of various sizes and shapes in their league was cited in improving acceptance of respondents’ own bodies. “We have women of every shape and size on our team … They are beautiful. They are inspirational!” and “It has given me a group of supportive women that encourage, rather than judge and discourage me in my good body image.” Respondents often discussed admiring their teammates’ bodies and focusing on the positive aspects rather than criticizing: “Roller derby has completely changed the way [I] look at my body and the bodies of other women. [I] do not criticize anyone’s body in negative ways any more, but instead somehow started finding the good things about people’s bodies” and “Seeing all these women with different body types still able to do amazing things that [I] cannot, or that ‘healthier’ girls cannot, allows me to understand that it doesn’t matter that [I] don’t look like a model, because [I’m] HEALTHY.”

With many positive views, there were also women who were critical of themselves: “Despite seeing others [with different] body shapes, I need to be in better shape to be more competitive” and “I know I am in better shape than I have been, but being around younger more athletic women that are thinner and have better muscle tone, I feel I am even more concerned about how I look.”

Clothing Choices

Participation in roller derby affected the respondents’ choice in clothing. Clothing choices reflect a more formfitting dress during derby practice and bouts and in respondents’ daily lives. A characteristic of roller derby is creating a persona and method of dress that reflect participants’ roller derby personalities. Dress used during bouts (derbying up) includes formfitting garments consisting of tights, short skirts, bicycle-style shorts under basketball-style shorts, and athletic clothing.

Individuals noted that wearing revealing clothing during practice and bouts gave them increased confidence: “I feel more powerful and sexy standing on the track in skates, Spanx and fishnets than I ever could have imagined!” and “I can wear skimpier outfits and boutfits without feeling embarrassed about my size.” Additionally, roller derby dress had impacted clothing chosen for daily wear: “Roller derby given me the confidence to wear what want more often and not be as afraid” and “I’m willing to wear clothes that fit more closely after pretty much a lifetime of hiding under shirts that are much too big.”

With increased muscles and subsequent change in their bodies, some respondents commented on the adverse impact on clothing fit: “My thighs are bigger which makes my pants too tight;” “hard to find jeans that fit muscular thighs;” and “I’ve gone up in pant size and they don’t look as nice on me. However, I do like having a shapely ass, but there are just not the clothes for it.”

Discussion

Participation in roller derby does affect body image. The majority of respondents, 97%, indicated roller derby participation had a positive influence on their body image. Quantitative data using the MSRBQ demonstrated that there is a significant difference between participants’ body image prior to joining roller derby and their body image currently (March 2012). One item in the Appearance Orientation scale, “It is/was important that I always look(ed) good,” and the scale mean indicated there was not a significant difference prior to joining roller derby and currently. It is interesting to note that for all scales and items except 3 of the 4 items on the Appearance Orientation scale and the scale itself, the respondents more strongly agreed with the statement currently. Appearance Orientation involves an individual’s investment in her appearance, including paying attention to her appearance and time spent on grooming or effort to “look good.” It seems that these efforts have not changed.

Although there was a significant difference in perception between prior to joining and currently overall, BMI did affect body image scores. As BMI increased, there was less agreement indicating a lower body image. These findings support the recent studies that have found that a higher BMI or actual body size was negatively correlated with body image and appearance constraints (Dijkstra & Barelds, 2011; Liechty, Freeman, & Zabriskie, 2006). Meanwhile, for Appearance Orientation, there was not an influence based upon BMI.

Age had a lesser influence than BMI, although statistically significant. Age had a small negative correlation with Current Appearance Evaluation and Prior Appearance Orientation, and a small positive correlation with Current Health Orientation. Length of membership had a positive impact on Current Fitness Orientation and Current Health Orientation (see Table 3). This research supports Robinson and Ferraro (2004) in that sports participation not only helps maintain physical health in women but also encourages a healthier body image.

Three themes emerged in the qualitative analysis: (1) the athletic body with clusters addressing athleticism or physicality, muscle development, and a healthy lifestyle; (2) body acceptance with clusters addressing their own bodies and their teammates; and (3) clothing choices during practice, bouts, and daily life.

Theme 1: The Athletic Body

Looking at the body as a tool and from an athletic perspective was a common theme: “[Emphasizing] strength/fitness/athletic ability over appearance.” The respondents looked at their bodies as a tool or what they could do with them focusing on muscles, strength, and how to improve them athletically. They wanted to be competitive, better players. “I am more focused on becoming stronger and more athletic, when I used to be focused on just getting skinnier.”

The findings are similar to the findings of Krane et al. (2004), which focused on the function of body and size resulting in satisfaction and pride. These findings are also consistent with previous studies that revealed that female athletes expressed empowerment, satisfaction, and enjoyment through physically assertive sports (Baird, 2001; Fields & Comstock, 2008; Hargreaves, 1993; Rail, 1992; Theberge, 1997).

Theme 2: Body Acceptance

The most exciting finding was related to the respondents’ acceptance of their own bodies and the appreciation of their teammates’ bodies. From their comments, it was clear that they were aware of the current cultural ideal and did not fit the ideal. They further expressed that they were accepting of their current body:

Overall, derby helped me internalize the idea that women are strong and beautiful in many shapes. It was something before roller derby I knew intellectually, but didn’t really live it. Mostly, I now really believe that my body is fine and it can be stronger.

These results are similar to the findings of Downeya et al. (2010), who found that the belly dancing community is more accepting and inviting to a broader range of body types. Fields and Comstock (2008) found similar results in the rugby community where participants are seen in all sizes and larger women are even revered as being a significant benefit on the field.

Respondents expressed sentiments like, “I feel completely accepted by my teammates and never judged by my body” and “So many people are accepting and welcoming of all body types. Everyone is considered beautiful.” Respondents indicated that seeing the array of body types of women skaters makes them more confident in their own bodies: “It is a group that is very accepting and encouraging of various body types so I still fit in as I am still slimming down.”

Being around other women has helped me to accept myself more. I accept other women’s different body shapes, I don’t feel so unacceptable anymore. Being with other derby members seem to attract ego-feeding attention that has helped me to realize I’m actually attractive.

With this new perspective, one would have to investigate Perry and Marsh (2000) who espouse the idea that sports have blueprints that define the ideal–typical body type of the skilled practitioner. They found that the ideal–typical body-type blueprint allowed trainers to evaluate the legitimacy of the athlete when compared to that ideal. This research contradicts the body-type blueprint in the sport of roller derby. Also, Rudd and Carter (2006) saw that certain body sizes or shapes characterize most sports and reflect what coaches, athletes, and the general public “expect” of the athletes in the specific sport. The roller derby environment is contradictory to this idea with a variety of body types being seen and valued. But a question does remain: What do the coaches and general public feel characterizes the body size of roller derby? It should be noted that the respondents valued “booty” and muscles, but the view of coaches and the general public is not known.

The findings are robust in showing that there is an overall improvement in body image comparing prior to joining roller derby and currently. However, as mentioned earlier, BMI affected body image. An individual who was overweight or obese had a related decrease in her body image perception prior to joining and currently. Roller derby is inclusive, supportive, and encouraging for all body types. Several comments indicate the inclusive nature of roller derby: “There is no one body shape in derby, it is a very open and accepting environment;” “[I] feel [I] am in an environment that accepts and celebrates physical diversity.” Body image improved, as can be seen with support from the data.

Theme 3: Clothing Choices

Respondents expressed that they were more comfortable with their bodies and had more confidence to wear more formfitting clothing during the day, at practice, and in bouts: “I’m willing to wear clothes that fit more closely after pretty much a lifetime of hiding under shirts that are much too big;” “I wear clothes that show my in shape [and] body more.” Respondents emphasized being comfortable in their bodies, and seeing others wear more fitted clothing gave them confidence in wearing similar clothing. This is contradictory to recent research. Krane et al. (2004) found athletes who wore revealing uniforms expressed discomfort in their uniforms, concern about how they looked in their uniforms, and worry that they would be perceived as fat or too big. Price and Pettijohn (2006) examined the influence of ballet dance attire on body and self-perceptions of female dancers. Dancers were allowed to wear loose-fitting outfits or “junk” for one class and tight-fitting garments (leotards and tights) for another class. When dancers wore “junk,” they reported a significant increase in positive body image and self-perceptions compared to when they wore leotards and tights. They found wearing tight-fitting clothing that accentuates body features was partially responsible for increased body concerns. Granted, ballet dancers have very different body types than roller derby participants. One roller derby respondent stated, “[I] have felt better, stronger, wearing more shapely clothing and sexy fishnets can make anyone feel sexy.” Another indicated how the clothing made her look like one of the team:

My butt was immediately appreciated in derby, and I worked up the bravery to wear hotpants, etc., without feeling embarrassed. I have bouted in tiny shorts and tights much like everyone else and when I saw the pictures/videos I didn’t see myself as the chubby girl on the track—I just looked like any one of the athletes out there.

Statements from respondents pointed out that roller derby allows participants to have more confidence in their bodies, and they are willing to wear more revealing clothing.

Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory is very evident, as respondents indicated comparing themselves within their roller derby culture: “I think I compare my body to other players/girls more often … I’m so proud of how athletic and muscular my body has become;” “I may compare myself to others more, or want more muscle [because] of other players I see, but it’s something to aspire to not something to feel ashamed of;” and “I noticed that every age, shape, and size of person plays roller derby.” Some indicated a negative influence on their body image, and comparing themselves to others had an adverse influence:

There is constant focus on fitness, diet, extra exercise. [It] has turned those concerns, and body image as a by-product into a constant focus. I stress more now about fitness and body image than [I] ever have before although [I] know [I] am in [the] best shape of my life.

For these respondents, focusing on the body as an athletic tool was a similar theme, although they felt pressure from their team whether real or perceived.

Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Research

There were limitations in the current investigation. Respondents were surveyed at only 1 point in time and asked to answer questions retrospectively. Although there was a large sample, it was a convenience sample, which limits the generalizability of the results. Future studies would benefit from including respondents from all countries and including longitudinal research to see the change in body image over a longer period of time. Researching the impact of participation in junior roller derby (for ages 6–18) on body image of young girls would be beneficial, considering young girls are most influenced by the cultural ideal and media images. This research included body expectations from the athlete’s perspective; research on what coaches and the general public “expect” of athletes in a specific sport versus the athletes themselves would be an interesting area to explore.

The research questions—(1) Does participation in roller derby affect body image and (2) How does participation in roller derby affect body image—have been thoroughly examined from the large group of respondents. It is clear from the qualitative and quantitative data that participation in roller derby affects body image. The environment of roller derby challenges the cultural ideal, promotes a healthier body image, and shows an acceptance of a variety of body sizes and types. The athletic body was emphasized by many participants, as many respondents discussed the body as a “tool.” A tool is developed for a specific use. In roller derby, the tool needs to be muscular, in any size, and as indicated by participants, healthy. In looking at the results, it seems participants are developing their own derby body based upon encouragement from the sport and teammates. Respondents expressed an increased respect for their body and an appreciation for a variety of body types. As seen in research by Rudd and Lennon (2000), participation in women’s athletics helps to increase feelings of self-esteem and a healthy respect for the body, which is also evident in this study. From analysis of the statements, roller derby affects body image and for many, comparing themselves to others had a positive impact.

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

Barbara Masberg interviewed her coauthor Andrea Eklund.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Note

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