Body Satisfaction as Antecedent to Virtual Product Experience in an Online Apparel Shopping Context

Abstract

Body satisfaction, largely ignored in studies of online shopping for body-involved products, was examined as an antecedent variable to the virtual product experience. The purpose of this study was to investigate how body satisfaction relates to the virtual product experience and attitudinal and behavioral intentions in the body-absent, online apparel shopping environment. Data were collected through a Web-based survey, and 403 female students from a Midwestern university in the U.S. responded. Findings from structural equation modeling showed that participants with higher body satisfaction tended to perceive more enjoyment of the virtual product experience in online apparel shopping, which helped them to facilitate more positive attitude toward products and increase online purchase intention. Results indicate that body satisfaction shapes enjoyment of the virtual product experience and leads to individual differences in online apparel shopping. Managerial implications to improve virtual product experience-related strategies in online apparel shopping are proposed.

Keywords

body satisfaction virtual product experience online apparel shopping

Consumers may hesitate or be reluctant to buy body-involved products, such as apparel, accessories, and footwear online (Denis & Fenech, 2004; Rosa, Garbarino, & Malter, 2006). This reluctance may result to a great extent from a lack of product information related to look and fit in the “body absent purchase environment” (Rosa et al., 2006, p. 79). Limited physical examination and lack of actual trial increase perceived discrepancy between virtual and direct product experiences, as well as perceived risk of product performance in online shopping environments (Denis & Fenech, 2004; Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006; Yu, Lee, & Damhorst, 2012).

In spite of negative concerns about online apparel shopping, apparel products are the fastest growing product category, demonstrating the potential growth of the online apparel market (Forrester Research, 2013). Furthermore, the online retail market will continue to grow, and the apparel, accessories, and footwear category was expected to reach US$40.3 billion in 2013 as the largest online sales category (Forrester Research, 2013). Forrester Research (2013) predicted that U.S. online retail sales would reach US$262 billion in 2013 and US$370 billion by 2017, reflecting continuous growth over the next 5 years.

Virtual product experience refers to “web shopping experiences that allow consumers to interact with and try products via Web interfaces using virtual reality technologies” (Jiang & Benbasat, 2004–2005, p. 476). Advancements in virtual product experience technology tend to facilitate or encourage consumers to shop for apparel products online (National Retail Federation, 2007). Researchers have indicated virtual product experience technology—such as zoom, 3-D rotation, mix-and-match, or 3-D virtual models—provides more imagery and sensory product information and effectively reduces perceived risks or concerns about body-involved products (Fiore, Jin, & Kim, 2005; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee, Kim, & Fiore, 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park, Kim, Funches, & Foxx, 2012; Park, Lennon, & Stoel, 2005). In spite of continuous improvements in virtual product experience technology, there is still a relative lack of direct experience of products. Direct experiences obtained through visits to in-store channels prior to and after purchase can reduce uncertainty and unfavorable consequences originating from the lack of physical presence and tangible experience of products in online shopping (Yu et al., 2012).

Despite the increasing efforts that apparel retailers provide to reduce the limitations of the virtual product experience in online apparel shopping, body satisfaction has been largely ignored in research as a factor shaping individual differences in the virtual product experience and behavioral responses in online apparel shopping (Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006). This occurs because most body image research focuses mainly on revealing negative effects of mass media, particularly women’s fashion magazines or advertisements, on body image (Yu, 2014). No academic attention has been given to the relationship between body image and online apparel shopping. Since apparel is a high-involvement product closely related to the body, individuals’ body satisfaction may influence their perceptions or concerns about body-related product information, such as look and fit, when they shop for apparel products online (Rosa et al., 2006). In spite of the significance of body image factors in online apparel shopping, only a few researchers have explored the influence of body esteem or body satisfaction on attitudes toward apparel products and on purchase intention in catalog shopping (Shim, Kotsiopulos, & Knoll, 1991) and Internet shopping (Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006). These researchers did not examine the relationship between body satisfaction and the virtual product experience in online apparel shopping environments. There has been little research specifically exploring body image–related antecedents within the virtual product experience of body-involved apparel products.

Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate how body satisfaction relates to the virtual product experience, attitude, and purchase intention in the body-absent, online, apparel-shopping environment. Attitude toward product is defined as “learned cognitive, affective, and behavioral predispositions to respond positively or negatively” to certain products (Aiken, 2002, p. 3). Therefore, this study makes a contribution to fill a gap in the literature about body image and the virtual product experience in online shopping for body-involved products. Furthermore, the findings from this study will provide an understanding of how the current virtual product experience in online apparel markets is effective and whether individual body image factors, such as body satisfaction, influence the effectiveness of current virtual product experience strategies. The findings may facilitate development of managerial implications for online apparel marketers and retailers to enhance their marketing and strategic management of online apparel retailing in body-absent shopping environments.

Theoretical Framework—Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

TAM maps factors that explain acceptance and usage intention of information technology and systems (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). Davis originally proposed that attitude toward and behavioral intention to use information technology are determined by two beliefs: (a) perceived usefulness and (b) perceived ease of use. Perceived usefulness is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance” (Davis, 1989, p. 320). Perceived ease of use is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989, p. 320). TAM assumes these two beliefs about usefulness and ease of use influence behavioral intention and actual technology or system usage behavior (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989).

TAM has been extended with additional or alternative constructs, such as perceived enjoyment (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992), to explain the hedonic nature of acceptance and usage behaviors toward information technology or systems. Perceived enjoyment is defined as “the extent to which the activity of using the computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated” (p. 1113). Intrinsically motivated, hedonic enjoyment has an important role in consumption experience and information processing (Holbrook, Chestnet, Oliva, & Greenleaf, 1984).

Many scholars, based on their empirical research, indicate that the idea that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment significantly influence attitude toward interactive information technology, website usage, and online shopping experience (Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee, Fiore, & Kim, 2006; Lee et al., 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park et al., 2012). Previously, researchers have found perceived usefulness is related to ease of use, but perceived usefulness is more influential than ease of use in determining attitude and usage (Davis et al., 1989, 1992). The effect of perceived enjoyment has been supported in explanations of the adoption of online shopping (Childers, Carr, Peck, & Carson, 2001; Davis et al., 1992; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park et al., 2012). Previously, researchers supported TAM in that perceived usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment toward virtual product experience technology (e.g., 3-D rotation and virtual try-on) positively influenced attitudes toward the online retailer (Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013).

This study is differentiated from previous studies based on TAM because we incorporated the antecedent construct—body satisfaction—into TAM to test individual differences in utilitarian and hedonic virtual product experiences. We empirically tested the extended TAM, including the body satisfaction construct, which will expand the predictive power of TAM to explain the acceptance or usage of utilitarian and hedonic virtual product experience technology. Because we focused on examining utilitarian and hedonic virtual product experiences, perceived ease of use was not included in the conceptual model since it relates to task complexity in TAM. Additionally, perceived ease of use indicates task complexity; hence, it was not regarded as relevant to online shoppers’ body satisfaction because task complexity of virtual product experience tools was conceptually divergent from body satisfaction. Therefore, the conceptual model was developed to examine how body satisfaction related to utilitarian and hedonic virtual product experiences of online shopping for body-involved apparel products (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Hypothesis testing results of the conceptual model of body satisfaction influences on virtual product experience in an online apparel shopping context.

Literature Review

Body Satisfaction

Body image incorporates a person’s perceptions and attitudes about his or her physical appearance (Fisher, 1986). The term “body image” has many definitions, depending on which of its different multidimensional aspects is emphasized. Body satisfaction is the focus of this study. As an interchangeable term with “body cathexis,” body satisfaction is defined as the “degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with various parts or processes of the body” (Secord & Jourard, 1953, p. 343). Body satisfaction or cathexis refers to the positive-to-negative self-appraisals of one’s appearance, stemming from “the degree of discrepancy or congruence between self-perceived physical characteristics and personally valued appearance ideals” (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002, p. 42). A large discrepancy between actual and ideal selves relates to body dissatisfaction, which results in negative effects, such as poor self-esteem, anxiety about self or social evaluation, depressive feelings, eating disorders, and body dysmorphic disorders (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990, 2002; Fisher, 1986; Grogan, 2008).

In online apparel shopping environments, consumers are often confronted with idealized, thin models whose body shapes and sizes may differ from the majority of consumers’ bodies (Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006). The online shopper must imagine the look and fit of garments on her own body and may base the estimates, in part, on body-related product information of two-dimensional views of the garments on thin model images. An accurate evaluation of product fit information is thereby hindered for the vast majority of consumers in the online shopping context (Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006). Processing visual product information on idealized models with bodies different from the consumer’s body may increase self-discrepancy between actual body and internalized ideal body and, in turn, lead to less satisfaction with the consumer’s own body (Cash & Prunzinsky, 2002; Grogan, 2008; Jung, Lennon, & Rudd, 2001; Kim & Damhorst, 2010). Online consumers may recognize that the look and fit of garments on the model images cannot be applicable to their own bodies. Consequently, poor quality of the virtual product experience and product evaluation, due to the perceived discrepancy between actual body and model images in online apparel shopping environments, may influence attitudinal responses toward apparel products and consequent purchase intentions (Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Rosa et al., 2006).

Investigation of the relationship between body image and apparel shopping behaviors has been limited. Shim, Kotsiopulos, and Knoll (1991) found male consumers, who had positive body satisfaction and favorable clothing attitudes, were more satisfied with ready-to-wear and were more likely to enjoy in-store shopping, whereas they were less likely to purchase clothes by catalog mail order. Rosa, Garbarino, and Malter (2006, p. 80) found consumers with high body esteem, “a deeply held and generalized like or dislike of the body,” tended to be more involved with apparel, which made them more concerned with look and fit and less likely to purchase apparel online. Inconsistent with the previous two studies, Kim and Damhorst (2010) found online consumers, who perceived more body self-discrepancy between themselves and online models and who had higher enduring apparel involvement, tended to have more body dissatisfaction, and those who had higher body dissatisfaction tended to have more concerns with fit and size of garment dimensions as well as lower online purchase intention.

In accordance with the Kim and Damhorst’s (2010) study, consumers with higher body satisfaction would perceive less self-discrepancy between themselves and online models. Less self-discrepancy between themselves and online models might make them more comfortable with and, therefore, involved with online apparel shopping. Furthermore, as Rosa et al. (2006) suggested, consumers with higher body esteem would be more involved with apparel and more concerned with look and fit. Therefore, consumers with higher body satisfaction would use virtual product experience tools more and perceive greater usefulness and enjoyment of the virtual product experience than those who have lower body satisfaction. To investigate the unexplored effects of body satisfaction on the virtual product experience, the following two hypotheses relating body satisfaction and online apparel shopping were developed (see Figure 1):

Hypothesis 1a: Consumers who have higher body satisfaction tend to perceive more usefulness of the virtual product experience than those who have lower body satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1b: Consumers who have higher body satisfaction tend to perceive more enjoyment of the virtual product experience than those who have lower body satisfaction.

Perceived Usefulness and Enjoyment of the Virtual Product Experience

Apparel brands and retailers have been integrating advanced virtual product experience technology (e.g., enlargement/zoom capability, 3-D rotation view, mix-and-match, video, virtual try-on, and creating personalized 3-D virtual models in virtual dressing rooms) in their online stores, allowing consumers to virtually examine and experience apparel products online with more realistic views (Kim & Forsythe, 2007). Virtual product experiences (i.e., computer-mediated, indirect experiences derived from product visualization technology) have been assessed by consumers as useful and enjoyable in visualizing and virtually evaluating products (Childers et al., 2001; Fiore, Kim, & Lee, 2005; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park et al., 2012). Researchers also suggest virtual product experiences through 2-D and 3-D visual product simulations minimize perceived risk, lead to more favorable brand attitude, and increase purchase intention (Fiore, Jin, et al., 2005; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Lee et al., 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park et al., 2005).

Based on the TAM, researchers examining the online shopping context suggest that imagery and sensory information through more advanced product virtualization technology positively influence perceived enjoyment and hedonic aspects, along with perceived usefulness and utilitarian aspects (Childers et al., 2001; Fiore et al., 2005; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013; Park et al., 2012). More sophisticated product virtualization technologies, such as virtual models, 3-D rotation views, and virtual try-on, increase hedonic motivations more than utilitarian motivations, indicating perceived enjoyment more strongly influences attitude toward using these technologies than perceived usefulness (Kim & Forsythe, 2007; Lee et al., 2006, 2010; Liaw & Chen, 2013). Researchers suggest that both utilitarian and hedonic virtual product experiences positively relate to attitude toward product and online purchase intention (Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010). Researchers testing the TAM found indications that attitude toward the product positively relates to purchase intention (Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010). Thus, the following hypotheses were developed (see Figure 1):

Hypothesis 2a: Perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience positively influences attitude toward product in online apparel shopping.

Hypothesis 2b: Perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience positively influences online purchase intention for apparel products.

Hypothesis 3a: Perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience positively influences attitude toward product in online apparel shopping.

Hypothesis 3b: Perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience positively influences online purchase intention for apparel products.

Hypothesis 4: Attitude toward product positively influences online purchase intention for apparel products.

Method

Sample

A total of 7,000 female college students at a large Midwestern University were recruited for a web-based questionnaire. Their e-mail addresses were purchased from the university’s Registrar’s office. Female college students were sampled because they have typically reported greater body dissatisfaction after exposure to thin-idealized model images in magazines and on television (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Grogan, 2008; Jung et al., 2001), are more likely to utilize the Internet and virtual product experience technology for apparel shopping (Denis & Fenech, 2004), and are target consumers for the stimulus website of J. Crew (Karr, 2013).

Stimulus Website

An existing retail website was utilized to evaluate how participants perceive usefulness and enjoyment of the virtual product experience. Specifically, the J. Crew website was selected because it includes up-to-date virtual product experience technologies and is a popular apparel brand website (Karr, 2013; Reuters, 2008). According to StellaService’s survey of e-commerce performance, J. Crew is ranked as the best specialty retailer for online shoppers of the 100 retailers surveyed (Karr, 2013). Among the many apparel items on the J. Crew website, denim was selected as the stimulus of this study because denim is one of the young consumers’ most popular choices for apparel shopping (Farrell-Beck & Parsons, 2007).

Instruments

Body satisfaction was measured by the Body Areas Satisfaction (BAS) subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ; Brown, Cash, & Mikulka, 1990; Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). The MBSRQ is a self-report inventory with reliabilities ranging from .75 to .90 (Brown et al., 1990; Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). The BAS subscale contains items measuring the level of satisfaction with eight body areas on a 5-point Likert-type scale: very dissatisfied (1) to very satisfied (5).

Consumers’ perceived usefulness and enjoyment of the stimulus virtual product experience were assessed by Davis’ (1989) usefulness scale of information technology adapted by Childers, Carr, Peck, and Carson (2001) to the online shopping context. The reliabilities of the usefulness scales reported by Childers et al. ranged from .92 to .93. One item—“Be helpful in buying what I want online”—used in Lee, Fiore, and Kim (2006) and Kim and Forsythe (2007) was added. The reliabilities for the enjoyment scale reported by Childers et al. (2001) ranged from .88 to .93. Two items—“Be fun for its own sake” and “Be interesting”—were added (Kim & Forsythe, 2007; Lee et al., 2006). The items were assessed on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).

To assess consumers’ attitudinal evaluations of the product, four semantic differential items were utilized (Holbrook & Batra, 1987). The reliability for Holbrook and Batra’s item was .98. Two items from Bruner (1998), “pleasant/unpleasant” and “appealing/not appealing,” were added, since they are commonly used to assess product attitudes.

The Behavioral Intention (BI) Scale, originated by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), was used to assess online purchase intention. The reliability of BI ranged from .84 to .98 (Stafford, 1996). The 3 items assessed on a 7-point Likert-type scale were used to measure the probability that the respondents would purchase any of the products viewed on the J. Crew website.

Data Collection Procedures

The institutional review board of the researchers’ university approved the use of human subjects for this study. A pretest was conducted with five female college students in merchandising and apparel design majors. Pretest participants were asked to complete the web-based experimental questionnaire in a computer lab and to suggest problems or difficulties in navigation of the stimulus website and completing the questionnaire. The pretest assessed clarity of questionnaire items and scales, as well as determined participation time, navigation ease of the stimulus website, and contents of the overall instructions for the survey. Since the stimulus link directly opened to the women’s denim section of the J. Crew website, participants reported they were not distracted by other items. After the pretest, participants did not state any problems or difficulties in navigating the website and completing the questionnaire. Participants confirmed 5 minutes were sufficient for browsing denim items using the six virtual tools.

A modified method of Dillman’s (2000) web survey design was used to administer the questionnaire. Students were e-mailed a cover letter with a link to the web questionnaire, and a follow-up e-mail was sent after 1 week to increase participation in the survey. Prior to evaluating the J. Crew website, participants were provided instructions about exposure to the denim site for J. Crew, the usage for virtual product experience functions, and forbidden sites and behaviors on the website, such as “Do not browse and view other items except denims.” Participants were also instructed to attempt 3-D rotation views, click zoom-in and zoom-out, click open the size chart, choose another color, and read verbal product information as well as fabric information. When participants clicked on the women’s denim section of the J. Crew website and browsed the stimulus website, they were allowed to freely navigate all available denim items for 5 minutes. Exposure time to the stimulus may influence participants’ evaluation of the stimulus website. Therefore, connection time and exposure time to the stimulus website were measured in self-recorded items. Participants’ average exposure time to the stimulus was 5 minutes and 30 seconds. They were also asked to check which of the six browsing tools they used. A majority of the respondents tried 3-D rotation views (83.1%), zoom-in and zoom-out (87.6%), size chart (81.6%), another color (88.6%), verbal product information (71.1%), and fabric information (71.2%). Then, they were instructed to complete the questionnaire.

Results

Descriptive Sample Analysis

From 7,000 female college students, 403 female students responded, resulting in a response rate of 6%. Listwise deletion of missing data was adopted. A total of 351 responses were deemed acceptable for further analysis using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 18.0. Sheehan and McMillan (1999) indicated that web survey response rates fluctuate from 6% to 75%, demonstrating response variations in web surveys. Nonresponse bias was assessed by approximating response rates on key subgroups of the target university population, with regard to age, ethnicity, major, and year in school. The sample distribution was similar to the total student population distribution, indicating little to no nonresponse bias. The mean age of the respondents was 22.25 years (SD = 5.75). A majority of the respondents were European American (82%), 2.7% of the respondents were African American, 3.2% were Latino or Hispanic American, and 11.9% were Asian or Asian American.

The mean body mass index (BMI) score for female participants was 22.99 (SD = 4.92), representing a “normal” weight. Among the respondents, 35 (9.2%) were classified as underweight by the BMI, 248 respondents (65.1%) were in the normal range, 64 respondents (16.8%) were overweight, and 34 respondents (8.9%) were in the obese range. BMI was negatively correlated with body satisfaction (−.32, p < .05), indicating respondents with lower BMIs were more likely to be satisfied with their bodies.

Factor Analysis

Principal components analysis with varimax rotation determined meaningful dimensions of the multi-item research variables. Factor loadings exceeding .55 with Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were considered evidence for construct validity (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Each key variable—body satisfaction, perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience, attitude toward product, and online purchase intention—had unidimensionality (see Table 1). For the body satisfaction variable, 3 items—hair, face, and height—were determined to have very low factor loadings ranging from .16 to .33. Thus, these 3 items were excluded. Regarding perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience, 1 item, “Be boring,” was also excluded because of its low factor loading of .52.

Table 1.

Results of Measurement Model Assessing Construct Reliability.

Factor Title and Items	Factor Loading^a	Cronbach’s α	Construct Reliability^b	Variance Extracted^c
Body satisfaction		.86	.84	.52
Weight	.87
Mid torso	.79
Lower torso	.72
Muscle tone	.70
Upper torso	.60
Perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience		.96	.96	.86
Enhance my effectiveness in online shopping	.96
Improve my online shopping productivity	.95
Improve my online shopping ability	.92
Be helpful in buying what I want online	.87
Perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience		.92	.92	.89
Be enjoyable	.90
Be interesting	.88
Be exciting	.81
Make me feel good	.82
Be fun for its own sake	.80
Attitude toward product		.95	.96	.79
Negative/positive	.93
Unfavorable/favorable	.92
Bad/good	.92
Unpleasant/pleasant	.87
Not appealing/appealing	.87
Dislike/like	.81
Online purchase intention		.96	.96	.90
Very improbable/very probable	.99
Very unlikely/very likely	.96
Very impossible/very possible	.89

Note. ^aAll significant at .05. ^bConstruct reliability is calculated as (∑std. loading)² divided by (∑std. loading)² + ∑εj. Measurement error is 1.0 minus the reliability of the indicator, which is the square of the indicator’s standardized loading (Hair, Anderson, Tathan, & Black, 1995). ^cThe variance extracted measure is calculated as ∑std. loading² divided by ∑std. loading² + ∑εj (Hair et al., 1995).

Preliminary Analysis of the Measurement Model

Through confirmatory factor analysis using LISREL 8.71, a measurement model composed of 23 indicators and five latent variables was tested to assess the construct validity before testing the structural model. Results showed the measurement model did fit the data well: χ²(220, n = 351) = 413.35, p < .001; standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = .04, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .05, comparative fit index (CFI) = .99, normed fit index (NFI) = .98, nonnormed fit index (NNFI) = .99, incremental fit index (IFI) = .99. Although a significant χ² showed a poor fit of the model, the χ² fit index has limitations in determining the extent to which the model does not fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The other fit indices, such as the SRMR value of .04 and the CFI value of .99, provide evidence of a fairly good-fitting model because SRMR values of .08 or less are considered as an indicator of goodness of fit along with CFI values greater than .95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). In addition, the RMSEA value of .05 was well within the acceptable fit parameters (RMSEA < .05 to .08). These results implied the scales for the five constructs reflect the hypothesized dimensionality with validity of measures (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Correlations Among Variables.

	BS	PU	PE	AP	OPI
Body satisfaction	—
Perceived usefulness of the VPE	.04	—
Perceived enjoyment of the VPE	.16**	.64**	—
Attitude toward product	.08	.49**	.69**	—
Online purchase intention	.00	.43**	.53**	.64**	—
Mean	14.82	17.97	22.24	20.97	7.14
Standard deviation	4.61	6.14	6.41	5.99	3.61

Note. n = 351. VPE = virtual product experience. BS = body satisfaction. PU = perceived usefulness of the VPE. PE = perceived enjoyment of the VPE. AP = attitude toward product. OPI = online purchase intention.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Internal consistency was tested using Cronbach’s α, a measure based on the intercorrelation of the items (Cronbach, 1951). All latent variables had Cronbach’s α coefficients over .70 and were considered acceptable (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The construct reliabilities were assessed to examine the degree to which the indicators for each latent construct were consistent in measuring the underlying factors (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). All construct reliabilities were above .70, the minimum value recommended (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 1995). Variances extracted were also computed to assess the variances in the indicators accounted for by the latent construct. All five variances exceeded .50, which is beyond the threshold level suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). Examining the correlations among research constructs assessed discriminant validity. The relatively low to moderate correlations ranging from .16 to .69 provided evidence of discriminant validity for the constructs (Kline, 1998). Kline (1998) suggested the specific criterion of less than .85 correlation value for discriminant validity. Thus, the research constructs in the model were regarded as having discriminant validity. Descriptive statistics for the research variables are summarized in Table 2.

Causal Model Analysis

The hypothesized relationships in the structural equation model were examined by the maximum likelihood estimation procedure, using Lisrel version 8.71 (see Figure 1). The hypothesized model consisted of one exogenous variable (body satisfaction) and four endogenous variables (perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience, attitude toward product, and online purchase intention). Results showed the proposed model revealed χ²(223, n = 351) = 540.44, p < .001, with SRMR = .19, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .98, NFI = .97, NNFI = .98, and IFI = .98. The χ² goodness-of-fit statistic was significant and the SRMR was greater than .08. These two indicators detected a difference between the observed sample covariance and the model-estimated covariance. However, RMSEA, CFI, NFI, NNFI, and IFI showed the proposed model yielded an adequate fit to the data.

To confirm the insignificant effects in the proposed model, the proposed model was revised by restraining the two insignificant paths to zero and reestimating the revised model. The difference for χ² and degrees of freedom between the proposed and revised models was Δχ²(2) = .46, p > .05, confirming the two insignificant paths as equal to zero. The results showed only the five remaining paths were significant (Figure 1). The findings indicated the revised model is not significantly different from the proposed model and the revised model is more parsimonious.

Figure 1 provides a visual summary of the results from hypothesis testing. All paths related to Hypotheses 1 through 4 were statistically significant except Hypotheses 1a and 3b. Body satisfaction positively influenced only perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience (γ₂₁ = .17, t = 2.84, p < .01), supporting Hypothesis 1b. That is, respondents who had higher body satisfaction had more enjoyment of the virtual product experience than those who had lower body satisfaction. No significant effect of body satisfaction on perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience was found (γ₁₁ = .06, t = 1.08, p > .05). Therefore, Hypothesis 1a was rejected. There were positive and significant effects of perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience on attitude toward product (β₃₁ = .11, t = 2.50, p < .05) and purchase intention (β₄₁ = .12, t = 2.59, p < .05). Therefore, Hypotheses 2a and b were supported. Consumers who perceived higher enjoyment of the virtual product experience responded with a more favorable attitude toward a product (β₃₂ = .68, t = 11.95, p < .001), supporting Hypothesis 3a. However, a significant effect of perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience on online purchase intention was not found (β₄₂ = .06, t = .99, p > .05). Therefore, Hypothesis 3b was rejected. As hypothesized, attitude toward product highly and positively influenced online purchase intention (β₄₃ = .55, t = 7.99, p < .001). Therefore, Hypothesis 4 was supported.

Decomposition of Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects

To examine the predictive validity of the revised model and explore the relative contribution of the predictor variables on the dependent variables, the decomposition of direct, indirect, and total effects was tested using the bootstrap sampling procedure described by Shrout and Bolger (2002; see Table 3). The decomposition results indicate body satisfaction had no direct or indirect effect on perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience but did have a significant, direct effect on perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience. The results also show significant, indirect effects of body satisfaction on attitude toward product and online purchase intention, mainly mediated by perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience. Perceived enjoyment had no direct effect but did have an indirect effect on online purchase intention, mediated through attitude toward the product.

Table 3.

Decomposition of Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects.

Predictor Variables (Dependent Variables)	Total Effects	Direct Effects	Indirect Effects
Body satisfaction
Perceived usefulness of the VPE	.06 (1.08)	.06 (1.08)	—
Perceived enjoyment of the VPE	.17 (2.84)**	.17 (2.84)**	—
Attitude toward product	.12 (2.92)**	—	.12 (2.92)**
Online purchase intention	.08 (2.90)**	—	.08 (2.90)**
Perceived usefulness of the VPE
Attitude toward product	.11 (2.50)*	.11 (2.50)*	—
Online purchase intention	.17 (3.53)***	.12 (2.59)*	.06 (2.41)*
Perceived enjoyment of the VPE
Attitude toward product	.68 (11.95)***	.68 (11.95)***	—
Online purchase intention	.44 (8.23)***	.06 (0.99)	.37 (7.18)***
Attitude toward product
Online purchase intention	.55 (7.99)***	.55 (7.99)***	—

Note. VPE = Virtual product experience.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Discussion and Implications

We investigated how consumers’ body satisfaction relates to the virtual product experience and attitudinal and behavioral intentions in the body-absent online apparel shopping environment. We found that body satisfaction was positively, directly related to perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience. That is, individuals who were more satisfied with their bodies tended to perceive more enjoyment of the virtual product experience when they browsed the J. Crew website. Body satisfaction may shape enjoyment of the virtual product experience, suggesting there are individual differences in information processing. Cox (1967) suggested consumers’ information-processing styles differ, depending upon different factors such as their personality and buying goals, cognitive needs and styles, and degree of buying maturity and experience. Inferring from the results of this study, we suggest that consumers with higher body satisfaction may be more likely to want to acquire, process, and utilize information about products available through the virtual product experience. They may be more concerned about fit and look, as Rosa et al. (2006) suggested, and, therefore, they may be more likely to use the virtual product experience tools for product evaluation and perceive more enjoyment when they use these tools. It is also possible that consumers with higher body satisfaction perceive less self-discrepancy between themselves and online models (Kim & Damhorst, 2010), which may make them more comfortable with and engaged in the virtual product experience.

Contrastingly, the results show body satisfaction was not related to perceived usefulness of the virtual product experience. Consumers who were more or less satisfied with their bodies did not show individual differences in perceiving the usefulness of the virtual product experience tools at the J. Crew website. Utilitarian aspects of the virtual product experience might not initiate or stimulate individual differences in processing information.

Consistent with previous studies (Childers et al., 2001; Kim & Forsythe, 2007, 2008; Lee et al., 2006, 2010), the findings verified the stronger effectiveness of hedonic versus utilitarian product experience on attitude toward the product but not on online purchase intention. Hedonic product experience indirectly influenced online purchase intention, while utilitarian product experience directly influenced purchase intention. Both hedonic and utilitarian product experiences in online apparel shopping played an important role in determining purchase intention directly and indirectly.

According to Shim et al. (1991), consumers with higher body satisfaction are more likely to have favorable attitudes toward clothing, satisfaction with ready-to-wear, and enjoyment through in-store shopping rather than catalog mail order. The findings from this study are in line with Shim et al.’s study in that consumers with higher body satisfaction tended to perceive more enjoyment of the virtual product experience and had more positive attitudes toward product and online purchase intention. Thus, body satisfaction may positively relate to both in-store and online shopping experiences.

This study contributes to the development of theoretical linkages previously untested—among body satisfaction, the virtual product experience, attitude toward the product, and online purchase intention—based on the TAM (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989) applied to the online apparel shopping context. The findings extend TAM by incorporating body satisfaction as an antecedent. The importance of individual differences in body satisfaction for adopting and using virtual product experience technology, especially for body-involved apparel product shopping online, is highlighted. Furthermore, this study reinforces the plausibility of a potential mediator—perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience—between body satisfaction and attitude toward product. Finally, the findings from this study provided understandings that the prevailing virtual product experience strategies in online apparel markets were effective, and individual body image factors indirectly influenced the effectiveness of the current virtual produce experience strategies.

The findings from this study have managerial implications for online apparel marketers and retailers. Consumers who have more body satisfaction tend to perceive more enjoyment of the virtual product experience, while those who have more body dissatisfaction tend to enjoy the experience less, likely due to the perceived discrepancy between their bodies and thin-idealized model images as well as greater difficulty in conceptualizing or visualizing body-related product information in online shopping situations. Thus, apparel marketers or retailers should deliberately differentiate product information or model images to (1) foster consumers’ positive body satisfaction and (2) minimize perceived discrepancies between actual bodies and model images, as well as negative body image (such as body dissatisfaction).

Providing more realistic or average-sized model images—closer to the average dress size (approximately size 14–16) for women in the United States (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012)—with diverse body sizes and shapes might be a way to reduce perceived discrepancy between the actual self and model images and, in turn, increase body satisfaction during online apparel shopping. Doing so may also decrease the reluctance of consumers with less than ideal body shapes to engage in online shopping for apparel (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Fisher, 1986; Yu, Damhorst, & Russell, 2011). Using personal body scan data in online apparel shopping could be another way to reduce perceived body-related self-discrepancy with models and concerns about purchase satisfaction by providing more accurate product specification information related to fit and size (Kim & Damhorst, 2010).

Consumers’ body satisfaction during online apparel shopping may differentially determine the degree of perceived enjoyment of the virtual product experience. Differentiating product presentation strategies by using more hedonic-oriented virtual tools is becoming more important to promote adoption and usage of virtual product experience tools. For example, the J. Crew website has added a 360° view for newly featured denim items, which may enhance more information for denim fit on the body as well as more enjoyment of the virtual product experience.

Additionally, hedonic or experiential product experiences can be increased by utilizing a higher level of product visualization technology, such as a 360° view, virtual models, virtual dressing room, style mix and match, or videos. These tools can increase hedonic value, experiential pleasure, and fun. Hedonic or experiential product experiences, based on more tangible and enjoyable product information, can help online shoppers make confident purchase decisions in body-absent online shopping environments.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

This study has several limitations. The results from this study may not be generalized to the U.S. population because we employed a random sample of female college-aged consumers who self-monitored the stimulus website. We used the apparel brand website J. Crew as a stimulus, which did not construct real purchase situations for online shopping and could be considered a higher end price point for college students. These potential factors may limit a realistic understanding of consumers’ online apparel shopping behaviors.

Several recommendations for future research are suggested. First, a more diverse sample that includes a wider variety of age, gender, education, ethnicity, cultural differences, and regions could expand explanation of the relationships of body image to online apparel shopping. Second, although beyond the scope of this study, other potential factors, such as price or design, need inclusion in future research, since they likely influence the virtual product experience and purchase intention. Third, among many body image concepts, body satisfaction was chosen for this study because the perceived discrepancy between actual bodies and model images stemming from online apparel shopping environments can be related to body satisfaction. However, testing other body image concepts, such as appearance evaluation or appearance orientation, would expand our overall understanding of the impact of body image on the virtual product experience and online apparel shopping.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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