Creating a More Ideal Self Through the Use of Clothing

Abstract

Using an exploratory approach, the current study, theoretically grounded in the self-discrepancy theory, investigated a woman’s perceptions of her body shape. The purpose was to understand how garments created with optical illusion prints or patterns affect women’s perceptions of body shape. Fifteen women were body scanned to determine their body shape and participated in an in-depth semistructured interview while viewing a personalized avatar (created from their body scan) depicted in the seven different optical illusion garments created by the researcher. Data analysis revealed six themes: (1) perception of self, (2) clothing and the body, (3) defining ideals, (4) preferences by body shape category, (5) effects of wearing optical illusions, and (6) a more ideal self. The results from this study indicated that optical illusion garments do effect the visual perception of body shape and can result in the perception of a more ideal body shape.

Keywords

body scanning self-discrepancy theory optical illusions body satisfaction

Women are capable of going to extremes in order to manage their appearance by participating in behaviors such as “dieting, exercising, cosmetic use, surgical procedures, and apparel selection” (Rudd & Lennon, 2000, p. 152). Making apparel-purchasing decisions as a technique for altering perceived body proportions or shape can be overwhelming to some, but it is considered a viable way to change one’s physical appearance. Admittedly, there are very few women who think they have a perfect body, and in many cultures, there are women who would like to improve their appearance through the use of clothing (Fan, Yu, & Hunter, 2004).

It is often suggested that one technique capable of altering a woman’s perception of her physical appearance is use of optical illusion textile prints and patterns. In fact, Fan, Yu, and Hunter (2004) stated, “The principles of illusion can be applied to the design of dress so as to camouflage the undesirable body attributes and to make the person’s appearance closer to the ideal” (p. 11). Transformation through clothing from actual self to a more ideal self is best explained by the self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987). Indeed, self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) provides a theoretical link between apparel and textile design and socio-psychological aspects of dress. Therefore, the primary goal of this exploratory study was to understand how garments created with optical illusion prints or patterns affect women’s perceptions of their body shapes. Digital avatars were created via body scanning in order to enable women to view their own body shapes wearing the digital optical illusion garments. Additionally, the researchers aimed to investigate whether optical illusion garments can aid women in achieving the appearance of a more ideal body shape. To design an optical illusion garment that might aid the wearer in achieving the perception of a more ideal body shape, designers must first understand body image and how ideal body shape is conceptually defined, in addition to the visual perception of pattern and illusion.

Literature Review

Self-Discrepancy Theory

The self-discrepancy theory, originally explained by Higgins (1987), is often used in the field of psychology when studying eating disorders and body dysmorphic disorders (Veale, Kinderman, Riley, & Lambrou, 2003). Higgins (1987) explained that there can be many definitions of the self, but “there are three basic domains of the self” (pp. 320–321): the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. These three subdimensions comprise an individual’s self-concept and can be defined as the following: (a) the actual self contains the attributes a person actually possesses, (b) the ideal self comprises the attributes that someone would ideally like to have, and (c) the ought self comprises the attributes that one should possess and are constructed by society (Higgins, 1987). Self-discrepancy emerges when there are differences among these subdomains (Jung, Lennon, & Rudd, 2001; Kim & Damhorst, 2010). Thus, when there is incongruity among the domains of the self, an individual will experience negative emotions or discomfort (Higgins, 1987). Furthermore, when a woman experiences a discrepancy between her actual and ideal selves, she might try to lessen the effect in a number of ways, including selecting apparel that she believes changes the way her body shape might be perceived (Rudd & Lennon, 2000).

Body Image and Ideal Body Shape

Closely linked to self-discrepancy, body image consists of both the perceptions that a woman has of herself (actual self) and her perceptions of what she desires to be (ideal self). The evaluation of one’s own body image is known as body cathexis (Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006) and is the feelings (positive and negative) that a person has toward her or his own body (LaBat & Delong, 1990). It should be noted, however, that the perception of body size and shape is closely linked to cultural ideals of beauty and can perpetuate self-discrepancy (Jung et al., 2001). In fact, researchers have found that “women are less satisfied with their physical appearance after viewing ideal images in the media” (Jung et al., 2001, p. 173).

Indeed, ideal body shape is dependent upon the time and space in which the body exists and can differ among cultures (Lee, Istook, Nam, & Park, 2007). Historically, a woman’s beauty was often influenced by the perception of “reproductive potential” (Fan et al., 2004, p. 5), and therefore the appearance of a larger bust and wider hips was considered the most beautiful. This appearance draws parallels to that of an hourglass body shape and might explain why it is often thought to be ideal in Western cultures. Coleman (2011) suggested that all women strive to achieve an ideal hourglass figure, classified by equal proportions on the top and bottom halves of the body with a narrow waist. Furthermore, a study conducted by Grogan, Gill, Brownbridge, Kilgariff, and Whalley (2013) revealed that all participants (N = 20 adult women) believed a slim hourglass figure was most ideal, and when given the option, all participants selected clothing that created the illusion of their ideal body shape (Grogan, Gill, Brownbridge, Kilgariff, & Whalley, 2013).

Optical Illusion and Dress

There is much contemporary commentary on the use of optical illusions in dress, both online and in the popular press. One popular optical illusion garment, a dress designed by Stella McCartney for her fall 2011 collection, used color blocking to enhance curves and create the illusion of an hourglass figure. According to a popular fashion blog, Southern Belle Dish (2011), who pictured several celebrities in the Stella McCartney dress, the lighter colors in the design drew attention to areas of the body such as the bust, while the darker side sections “receded into the background” and “drew in an exaggerated waistline” (p. 1).

Conversely, Rochell (2012) warned that it could be difficult to find the right optical illusion for one’s own body. In her discussion of illusion, she stated that some illusion apparel makes women look larger in areas that are already large or makes already small areas appear awkwardly tiny. While several optical illusion garments seen on the runway or the red carpet were considered a success, many left viewers wondering what the wearer was thinking when selecting her dress (Rochell, 2012). It could be argued that optical illusion garments are designed with certain body shapes in mind and thus are not effective for all body shapes. For this reason, in the current study, the authors explored a set of optical illusion garments on three body shapes researchers have found to be the most common among women (Devarajan & Istook, 2004; Lee et al., 2007)—hourglass, spoon, and rectangle—to gain a better understanding of how the optical illusions affected wearers’ perceptions. The following research questions were proposed:

Research Question 1: How do optical illusion garments affect the visual perception of body shape?

Research Question 2: Does the effect of optical illusion garments vary depending on body shape (hourglass, rectangle, and spoon)?

Research Question 3: Do optical illusion garments positively or negatively affect a woman’s perception of body shape?

Research Question 4: Do optical illusion garments aid the wearer in moving from their actual self toward their ideal self?

Research Question 5: Do optical illusion garments increase a woman’s body satisfaction?

Method

The authors used an exploratory approach in the current research study to investigate a new methodology for studying optical illusion garments and to gain an understanding of how avatars and digital garments can be used in design research. Furthermore, although optical illusions have been previously studied within a color theory and/or perception framework (Itten, 1961; Zelanski & Fisher, 2010), the application to dress has seldom been explored (other than in clothing illustrations; Davis, 1996), making it a relatively new line of research. It was unknown at the onset of this study whether participants would be able to connect to their avatars and feel as if they were viewing themselves. Moreover, understanding how the connection to their avatars would affect the way participants perceived the optical illusion designs had yet to be examined. These unknowns within existing research further suggested use of an exploratory approach.

Pilot Study and Garment Design Process

A pilot study was conducted to explore the integration, use, and application of technology to be used in this study. The pilot study consisted of a five-person (all women) focus group recruited from the textile and apparel graduate program at a large Midwestern university. The pilot study afforded the researchers the opportunity to investigate the use of avatars and provided a baseline for how participants would interact with and respond to their avatars. Moreover, utilizing a pilot study allowed for exploration of the application of optical illusions to clothing and helped to determine whether an optical illusion would affect the visual perception of body shape.

Optitex® (version 15) software was used to construct three avatars (see Figure 1) that represented hourglass, spoon, and rectangle body shapes, considered the most common body shapes among women today (Simmons, Istook, & Devarajan, 2004). Four optical illusion prints were created for the pilot study. Additionally, the prints were created in black and white in order to eliminate any distraction (i.e., associations and preferences) that color may have caused. They were also created in different scales to determine the greatest visual impact of the optical illusion prints. A basic sheath dress pattern was used as the test garment for print placement and was digitally stitched and draped onto the avatars. Afterward, the pattern pieces were adjusted in order to present each of the three body shapes in a well-fit garment.

Figure 1.

Avatars used in pilot study. This figure depicts the avatars that were created in Optitex to represent the body shape categories of hourglass (left), spoon (center), and rectangle (right).

The pilot study was used to develop the method for the main exploratory study. The pilot study illustrated that the sheath dress was a viable option for the test garment. Participants were able to identify the body shape of the avatar in the sheath dress, thus allowing the optical illusions to have an effect on the perception of body shape. Based on the pilot study, it was decided that more knowledge could be gained from observing women viewing a personalized avatar. Therefore, the researchers body scanned participants, created individual avatars for each participant, and conducted a semistructured in-depth interview with the participants. Next, an explanation of the test garment and the design process used for creating the optical illusion garments is discussed.

Test Garment

Similar to the pilot study, the test garment used for the current study was a basic sheath dress. This allowed a uniform surface for print development and evaluation of the illusions. The sheath dress shape selected was a semifitted, sleeveless garment (see Figure 2). Thus, the dress defined the basic body shape with minimal accentuation of any one area and allowed for implementation of textile prints without interference from complicated seaming. Five optical illusions were applied to the test garment for a total of seven optical illusion garments that the participants viewed and evaluated during the in-depth interview.

Figure 2.

Test garment. This figure depicts the basic sheath dress, created in Optitex that was used as the test garment for the current study.

Optical Illusion Garment Design Process

The optical illusion garments were developed based on five illusions determined through the pilot study: simultaneous contrast, spatial effect, the Helmholtz illusion, the Muller-Lyer illusion, and the MacKay’s Rays illusion. The Helmholtz illusion and the Muller-Lyer illusion involved the comparison of two types of lines (i.e., horizontal stripes vs. vertical stripes); therefore, both aspects of the illusions were included, resulting in a total of seven different optical illusion garments (Figure 3a–g). Similarly to the pilot study, all of the illusions were created in black and white; however, simultaneous contrast, which cannot occur without the presence of color, was created using yellow and blue.

Figure 3.

Optical illusion garments. This figure depicts the textile prints that were used to create the optical illusion garments: (a) Helmholtz horizontal stripes, (b) Helmholtz vertical stripes, (c) MacKay’s Rays, (d) Muller-Lyer down arrow, (e) Muller-Lyer up arrow, (f) simultaneous contrast, and (g) spatial effects.

Helmholtz illusion

The Helmholtz illusion, created by Hermann von Helmholtz ([1867] 1962), appears as two squares consisting of seven evenly sized and spaced lines. In one square, the lines are positioned horizontally, and in the other square, the lines are positioned vertically. Helmholtz argued that when comparing the two squares, the one in which the lines are positioned horizontally appears to be narrower and taller than the square with the vertical lines. When applied to apparel, Helmholtz’s theory posits that horizontal lines will make a person appear taller than vertical lines do, which contradicts the common belief that wearing horizontal lines makes a person appear wider (Thompson & Mikellidou, 2011).

For this study, the researchers created an optical illusion garment that could represent the line drawings used in the orginal construction of the illusion. The horizontal and vertical lines were placed on the body as to appear evenly sized and spaced. The scale was adjusted, so that the front and back views would contain seven lines, reflecting the original illusion.

MacKay’s Rays illusion

The MacKay’s Rays illusion, created by neuroscientist Donald M. MacKay in 1957, is defined as an autokinetic illusion, one that creates a sense of movement (Martinez-Conde & Macknik, 2008). Davis (1996) stated that this type of illusion could be very distracting to the viewer when used in clothing. However, this sense of movement can also be used to draw the viewer’s attention to different parts of the body, hiding areas that are undesirable or highlighting areas that are desirable.

For the current study, the MacKay’s Rays illusion had a dark center, which was placed at the waist and along the side seam, to create a visual effect on the waist. The placement of this illusion was strategically chosen in hopes of keeping the viewer’s eye moving, with the only real focal point being the waist, and to amplify the overall effect of an hourglass shape.

Muller-Lyer illusion

Davis (1996) identified the Muller-Lyer illusion as useful for creating illusion with dress. She explained this illusion as when “a line with angled extensions at each end appears longer than another line of equal length in which the angled lines at each end double back” (p. 40). This illusion consists of two groups of lines that are meant to be compared. To create the illusion on the figure, the body was used to represent the straight line, which in the original illusion connects the arrows on either end. As interpreted for this study, the shoulders and knees were used as end points for the arrows in the paired designs, with the body as the line that connects the two arrowheads. This was intended to keep the viewer’s attention on the arrows themselves and to explore how framing the body would affect perceptions of body shape.

Simultaneous contrast

Simultaneous contrast results when the receptors in the human eye become fatigued. To compensate for this fatigue, the eye creates the illusion of the appearance of an additional complementary color (Itten, 1961; Zelanski & Fisher, 2010). For the current study, the researchers chose to work with the visual receptor pair that perceives yellow and blue rather than red and green. The justification for this decision was because the red/green pair has many color associations (i.e., Christmas), and it was feared that the overall effect would be lost if the viewer was distracted. Therefore, the design for this garment was created using two colors (yellow and blue) side-by-side in a linear pattern. Although the pattern was linear, a scalloped line was created to ensure that there would not be any confusion between this garment and the Helmholtz vertical stripe. Additionally, the curves used in this linear print helped to accentuate the curves of the body, and the indent of the curve was purposefully placed at the waist. Other designers were asked to evaluate this illusion by viewing the avatar for a short period of time to ensure that the illusion of a red line did occur. All designers (N = 3) established they were able to see a faint red line appear where the blue and yellow lines met, confirming the simultaneous contrast effect for this garment.

Spatial effect

Spatial effects occur when the eye perceives hues that are lighter as being larger and closer (Zelanski & Fisher, 2010). The use of light and dark colors can enhance the sense of size and space within a design. For application of this illusion, the researchers created a garment similar to those that were seen on the runway and in stores intended to create a false hourglass shape. To complete this effect, a light, pink-tone color was paired with black to create a print that narrowed in at the waist and expanded back out to the bust and hips. The use of black in the foreground was intended to create the sense that the wearer’s body was smaller when contrasted to the lighter color outlining the sides of the body.

Research Design

Participant Recruitment

The primary recruitment tool for this study was a flyer. Flyers were distributed across a large Midwestern university campus and throughout the community. Participants who responded to the flyer were also asked to recommend others to participate, utilizing a snowball sampling technique (Babbie, 2008). Participants were compensated with US$10 target gift card for each phase of the study they completed. This study was approved by the university’s institutional review board prior to participant recruitment.

Selection criteria

Previously, researchers have defined the three most common body shapes for women as hourglass, spoon, and rectangle (Devarajan & Istook, 2004; Lee et al., 2007; Simmons, 2002). The aim was to investigate these three body shape categories. Therefore, as Stage 1 of the study, every woman who responded to the recruitment flyer was invited to the research laboratory to be body scanned and to participate in a short survey and a semistructured interview. Participants had to meet two main criteria in order to qualify to participate in the second stage of the study. First, participants had to have body measurements that classified them as one of the three body shapes being explored, and second, their height and weight measurements had to categorize them as having a normal body mass index (BMI).

Body measurements and shape classification

To determine whether potential participants had body measurements that classified them as one of the three body shapes being investigated, a TC² 3-D body scanner (TC² Labs, Apex, NC, USA) was used to obtain the participant’s measurements. Four circumferential measurements (i.e., bust, waist, high hip, and hips) were used to classify body shape. The instrument used for analysis of body shape was derived from the female figure identification technique (Simmons, 2002) and adopted from Lee, Istook, Nam, and Park (2007), who used the bust, waist, high hip, and hip measurements to determine body shape.

BMI

The second selection criterion was that participants needed a normal BMI. BMI is a common measure of body fat and is used as an indicator of overall health (Noda, 2008). A normal BMI was required in order to control for body size. When developing print placement and scale, participants who greatly ranged in overall size would have required greater variation in print placement. Thus, in order to control for these variables, it was important that all participants view garments with the same print. Therefore, for Stage 2 of the research project, participants were required to have a normal BMI ranging from 18.5 to 24.9.

Sample

A total of 21 women qualified and participated in Stage 1 of the study. However, only 15 of the women who met the selection criteria previously mentioned qualified for the second stage of the study. The six women who did not qualify for the second stage of this study did not have one of the body shapes being examined and/or did not have a normal BMI. Of the 15 women who qualified, five were classified as hourglass, five as rectangle, and five as spoon shapes. The even distribution among body shape categories made it easier to generalize.

The 15 qualifying women ranged in age from 24 to 56 years with an average age of 31. Nine women identified themselves as Caucasian, five as Asian, and one self-identified as Native American. Participants’ height ranged from 4’11” to 5’8”, with an average height of 5’4”. Their weight ranged from 117 lbs to 152 lbs, with an average weight of 129 lbs. All participants had a BMI considered normal, ranging from 19 to 24.4, with an average of BMI score of 21.5.

Data Collection and Procedures

Avatar Creation

An avatar was created for each of the 15 women who qualified and agreed to participate in the research study. The measurements and cloud point data collected through body scanning were used to create each participant’s avatar. Image Twin software allowed for the avatars to have the facial features of the participants. Once an avatar for each participant was produced in the Image Twin software, the researchers imported the avatars into Optitex software in order to customize the test garment.

Digital Garment Fit and Design Process

A size 6-block pattern for a basic sheath dress was used as a starting point and was manipulated for fit. Six indications of correct fit as outlined by Sohn and Bye (2012) were used to ensure a well-fitted garment was created. The next step in the process was to implement the digital textile prints created by the researchers to the custom-fit sheath dress for each participant. Optitex pattern design software (PDS) was used for this implementation. Each textile print was individually placed, and once the scale and placement of the print was adjusted, the Optitex software allowed the file to be saved as a model. A model consisted of the participant’s personalized avatar dressed in a custom-fit optical illusion garment. A total of eight models per participant were created (seven optical illusion garments and one solid black garment).

In-Depth Interviews

Participants met individually with the researchers to participate in a semistructured in-depth interview that lasted roughly 40–50 min. Participants sat at a computer station and were first asked to define their own ideal body shape, their opinion of what constitutes the current societal ideal, and to talk about their clothing selection process. Participants then viewed their avatar for the first time wearing the custom-fitted, all-black sheath dress. Participants were told that it was created from their body scan and based on their measurements. While viewing this avatar, they were asked to give their initial reactions and to describe how closely they considered the avatar to represent themselves. Participants were also asked to describe their avatar in terms of their body shape, proportions, or anything else they observed. Finally, participants were asked to identify how ideal their body shape looked in the black sheath dress.

Next, participants viewed their avatar wearing the seven different optical illusion garments. Each illusion garment was viewed individually, and the participants were asked a set of questions similar to those they were asked when viewing the all-black garment. Participants were presented in the following order: (a) Helmholtz horizontal stripes, (b) Helmholtz vertical stripes, (c) MacKay’s Rays, (d) Muller-Lyer down arrow, (e) Muller-Lyer up arrow, (f) simultaneous contrast, and (g) spatial effects. Participants were asked for initial reactions to each garment and then probed further to gain a better understanding of how they felt the optical illusion garments affected the way they perceived their body shape. For the Helmholtz and Muller-Lyer illusions, each participant viewed each half of the illusion individually, and then both halves were depicted on a computer screen, so that participants could compare each side-by-side. After participants had viewed all seven optical illusion garments, the researchers asked several follow-up questions. These questions explored participants’ thoughts on wearing optical illusion garments, whether optical illusion garments aided in achieving a more ideal body shape, and how participants felt their personal style and preferences affected their opinion of the garments they viewed.

Validation Strategies

Validation strategies are used to make qualitative research credible and rigorous (Creswell, 2007). For the purpose of this study, the following validation strategies, as noted by Creswell (2007), were used: (a) triangulation, (b) clarification of the researchers’ bias through research reflection, and (c) rich, thick descriptions. Triangulation was achieved by collecting multiple types of data that consisted of the initial Stage 1 interview and questionnaire, body measurements, and the in-depth interview. The interview data collected from both interviews provided qualitative data, whereas the questionnaire and body measurements provided quantitative data. These three types of data represent three different sources of information that allowed the voice of each participant to be heard. For clarification, researchers fully acknowledged any biases they had while conducting this research and how their experiences might influence the research and data analysis process. For instance, the researchers acknowledge that their involvement in the garment design process might influence the interview portion of the study. The final validation strategy was use of rich, thick descriptions that included long, full quotes, so that the voice of each participant could be noted.

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was conducted, and the transcripts from the interviews were then coded following the guidelines set out by both Braun and Clarke (2006) and McCracken (1988). A detailed analysis of the language/text in each of the transcripts was conducted and then compared for themes, trends, and patterns across all of the transcripts. This led to development of overarching themes (categories), trends established within those categories, and finally patterns found within those emergent trends. Participants were given pseudonyms that start with the first letter of their assigned body shape category (e.g., Sarah = spoon, Holly = hourglass, etc.).

Results

Interpretation of the study data was divided into six overarching themes: (a) perception of self, (b) clothing and the body, (c) defining ideals, (d) preferences by body shape category, (e) effects of wearing optical illusions, and (f) a more ideal self.

The first theme, perception of self, examined participants’ responses to viewing their personal avatars. The second theme, clothing and the body, explored women’s beliefs about how clothing can affect the way their body shape is perceived. Defining ideals, theme three, revealed how participants defined ideal body shape personally and for the society to which they belong. The fourth theme, preferences by body shape category, explored the research question (RQ1) by examining the differences between body shape categories. Each body shape category (hourglass, rectangle, and spoon) was examined individually, and trends found within each shape category were explored (RQ2). The third research question was explored in Theme 5, effects of wearing optical illusions. This theme examined whether optical illusion garments positively or negatively affected the women’s perception of their body shapes. Finally, Theme 6, a more ideal self, explored the final two research questions by addressing whether optical illusions can aid in achieving a more ideal body shape and if body shape satisfaction was increased.

Perception of Self

The perception of self theme connected the participants’ perceptions of their own body shapes as compared to the avatar and to their shape category as measured. Seven of the 15 women perceived their body shape the same as the one in which the researchers had categorized them. Interestingly, 9 of the 15 women identified themselves as an hourglass. This included the five women identified as hourglass by the researchers. Whether the majority chose this shape because it is the most commonly known or because it is an aspirational shape is unclear. None of the participants identified themselves as a spoon shape. In the rectangle shape category, two of the five women correctly identified their shape as rectangle. Most of the participants who correctly identified their body shapes were less surprised by the appearance of their avatars. For instance, Helen, who correctly identified herself as an hourglass shape, stated, “It’s pretty similar to what I thought it would be actually.” Moreover, Rebecca, who correctly identified herself as a rectangle shape, pointed out that she does not “have a waist line, so [she] can see that rectangle look.” Rebecca’s comment revealed that she defined the rectangle shape as having a lack of a defined waist and indicated her knowledge of this shape category.

For several participants, viewing their avatar was an eye-opening experience that allowed them to see their body shape differently. This was particularly true for the women classified as a spoon shape. This experience was further illustrated by Sarah, who observed that her hips stuck out more and were “rounding out at the bottom more than [she had] expected.” Whether the participants were seeing themselves as a particular shape for the first time or had previously identified themselves as the correct shape, the initial viewing of their avatar allowed a new perspective and opened the conversation for them to more accurately evaluate their body shapes and the illusions.

Clothing and the Body

The clothing and the body theme addressed the role that clothing plays in how the women not only perceived their body shape but also how they thought others might perceive it. All participants believed that clothing could be used to alter body perception, including hiding or accentuating areas of the body. The participants also thought clothing played a large part in how others perceived their shape and were conscious of this when selecting clothing. Sarah, Susan, Rachel, and Heather all commented that they used clothing to accentuate areas of their bodies they were satisfied with and to hide areas they were unsatisfied with. Helen also noted the use of clothing to completely conceal the body, stating, “If you are having a fat day, you can wear an oversized shirt and hide it.” In a similar manner, Renee explained that she thought clothing played a large role in perception of body shape. She elaborated, saying that clothing can “make you either look shorter or fatter, or you can look thinner or even smooth out your figure.”

Defining Ideals

For the overarching theme, defining ideals, participants discussed and defined both their personal ideals and their perception of the ideals deemed desirable by the society in which they live. For some participants, these ideals corresponded, but for others, these were two very different ideals. Two trends emerged when exploring this concept of ideal body shape: (a) hourglass as the ideal and (b) fit and healthy emphasis.

The hourglass body shape has long been accepted by many as the ideal body shape (Coleman, 2011), and according to many of the participants, it is still the shape that they strive for. Eight of the participants expressed that they felt an hourglass shape was ideal. Rose elaborated by saying that she would prefer “a smaller waist, not huge on top or the bottom, but definitely a difference between the two—a more hourglass shape.” Another participant, Steph, talked openly about her perception of the hourglass shape as the dominant ideal in society. She stated that she thinks the ideal is still “Barbie-like,” describing it as a woman with a “small waist, big boobs, curves, [and] long legs.” While the hourglass was considered ideal by eight of the women, the other seven expressed a belief that there was a shift occurring and that the new trend was for women to just be more fit and healthy. Sharon addressed this by talking about the changes she sees occurring and how even models today are changing to a healthier look compared to the extremely thin body type they once were expected to have.

Sharon:

I think the trend is becoming that people still want to be slim, but I don’t think it’s as skeletal, like it used to be with models. I think like Victoria’s Secret models are now healthier-looking. I think that is becoming more popular and that people want to be healthy and fit.

None of the women wanted to completely abandon the idea of the hourglass shape as ideal. They still wanted a noticeable bust and hips, as the assumption was that would make them appear more feminine. However, the underlying pressure to have curves while being extremely thin was no longer assumed. Their ideal was really a combination of both themes, a healthy and fit body, but with at least some sense of hourglass curves. They also seemed to place less emphasis on achieving the ideals defined by society, although this could be a result of their feeling that society is now more accepting of other body shapes.

Preferences by Body Shape Category

The theme preferences by body shape category focused on the trends that occurred for each body shape category in terms of preferences for the different illusions. For each body shape, the researchers looked for commonalities that occurred across all optical illusion garments.

Hourglass

Four of the five women classified as an hourglass shape felt that the optical illusion garments changed the way they perceived their body shapes in a negative way. Many of them indicated that changing their proportions and not showing off their shape was undesirable. Hannah expressed her dislike for garments that increased the appearance of her hips, stating that it “makes me feel like my hips look bigger and bigger in a bad way.” Additionally, Holly often felt certain areas of her body looked larger in the optical illusion garments, which made her feel less content with the way she perceived her body shape. She also felt that changing the perception of her shape in general was negative. Similarly, Hope frequently spoke negatively about the garments that did not focus on her waist and that as a result “made [her] waist look wider.” When this occurred she felt that the garment made her “appear more boxy,” and she was less satisfied with the way she perceived her shape. Overall, the women with hourglass body shapes didn’t feel content with the way that the optical illusion prints interacted with their body shape. It can be argued that women with an hourglass shape had proportions they deemed as ideal, so they did not see a benefit from a garment that aimed to manipulate their proportions.

Rectangle

All five women classified as a rectangle body shape were very focused on whether or not the garment created “a shape.” Rose commented while viewing the spatial effect optical illusion garment that she thought it was “flattering because it gives you more of a shape…it gives you a very defined shape and gives you the look of an hourglass shape.” Similarly, Robin liked the simultaneous contrast garment and commented, “I like this hourglass shape, and it is what I would prefer.” Rachel referred to the creation of shape in terms of the creation of curves and preferred garments that changed her straight up and down shape to a “more curvy” shape. Rachel made this assertion while viewing the simultaneous contrast illusion garment when she said, “It makes my body have more curves.” Rachel found this garment to be particularly ideal. When Rose viewed the Helmholtz illusion, she preferred the horizontal stripes as she felt they defined her waist. Rose commented, “It is more flattering because it has more definition and shows off more of a shape…it looks like there is more of a defined waist and a bust that is more noticeable.” In general, those classified as a rectangle shape felt that the optical illusion garment helped to create a more ideal shape.

Spoon

The women classified as a spoon shape placed a great deal of importance on visual emphasis of the upper half of their bodies. Sometimes this was to distract from their hip area, and other times it was to create a greater sense of balance among bust, waist, and hips. For example, when viewing the Muller-Lyer illusion Sarah stated, “It does nice things for my shoulders, the emphasis is drawn more up there.” Additionally, she commented that in general she liked the illusions that focused on her upper body. She said, “I like the illusions that emphasize the bust and create a strong shoulder.” Because the women with a spoon shape viewed their hips as a main focus, they were more satisfied with garments that created the appearance of balance in their proportions. Sarah was very focused on the concept of balance and frequently made comments such as, “This does a better job of making me look balanced,” and I look “more balanced on the top and bottom.” Sarah felt satisfied with the way her body looked in the spatial effects illusion garment because it “balances out” her proportions. She went on to express her satisfaction by explaining that it helped to “create an hourglass shape.” For most of the women classified as a spoon shape, the optical illusion garments that emphasized the bust and shoulders created balance and aided in the creation of a false hourglass shape.

Effects of Wearing Optical Illusions

The theme effects of wearing optical illusions explored the women’s opinions on how the optical illusions utilized in this study affected their perceptions of their own body shapes. For most of the women, the illusions positively affected how they perceived their body shape, but for some, the illusions highlighted what they considered to be their problem areas. Although the hourglass women were often indifferent to the effects of wearing the optical illusion garments, they still acknowledged that the optical illusion garments impacted their perceptions. In general, the effect of wearing optical illusions was found to be both positive and negative, but the effect was dependent on body shape and the optical illusion being examined.

Helen stated that she “will start thinking about [optical illusions] more because it makes a huge difference obviously.” For Holly, it was “thought provoking,” and she admitted that optical illusions and changing the perception of her shape was something she had not previously considered.

Holly:

I think it is really interesting to see your body shape reflected back at you in this way. I think we have an impression of what it is, but I always wear a certain size, but to consider proportions is useful and then maybe what different designs might accentuate certain things depending on what you want them to do.

Robin had a positive perception of how the illusions affected the way she viewed her body shape and hoped there would be an opportunity to learn more about them in the future.

Robin:

I am definitely interested in them and some of them I really like and some of them look really good to me so I would definitely be interested in this and if there is anything that can be scientifically explained about dress and how we look.

While it was clear that many of the women had preconceived ideas about certain illusions, such as the Helmholtz illusion, participants seemed to come to the realization that illusions can be used in previously unconsidered ways. Additionally, the women with rectangle body shapes were more likely to appreciate the benefits that optical illusion could provide.

A More Ideal Self

The theme a more ideal self examined all 15 women’s opinions on whether they believe that optical illusion garments might aid them in achieving a more ideal self and as a result increase body satisfaction. Rebecca told the researchers that she “honestly feels that [optical illusions] can” help her achieve a more ideal self. She went on to say that she feels that optical illusions give her the “opportunity to accentuate or hide areas” of her body. Additionally, Sam felt that the optical illusions could “definitely help get a more ideal shape” and that “it can totally make or break my figure and how I look.” Heather also felt that optical illusions can create a more ideal shape “because they can emphasize or deemphasize certain areas of your body,” which can lead to greater satisfaction with body shape.

Hope stated that she believed optical illusion garments “can make you have a more ideal shape.” Hope and Susan both talked about increased body satisfaction when describing their feelings about how the optical illusion garments made them feel different about their appearance.

Hope:

I do feel like optical illusions can make you look different, like highlight the best parts, they obviously wouldn’t make you look something that you’re not, but it can highlight the parts of your body that are good and if you don’t want to show off the other parts it can like take away the attention to the bad parts.

Susan:

I think they can, they can help with your silhouette, or there are ones that are busy that draw your eye away like if you think you have big hips, it might draw your eye away to other areas when you are looking at the pattern as opposed to everyone staring at your hips.

Through the comments from Susan and Hope, it was apparent that optical illusion garments could help the wearer achieve a more ideal sense of self.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to explore how optical illusion garments impacted women’s self-perception of their own body shapes. Six themes emerged from this study including (a) perception of self, (b) clothing and the body, (c) defining ideals, (d) preferences by body shape category, (e) effects of wearing optical illusions, and (f) a more ideal self. The research questions proposed were addressed through the analysis of each of these themes.

Interestingly, it was found that women who had an hourglass body shape felt that changes to the visual perception of their proportions negatively impacted their perception of body shape. Additionally, these women were often indifferent to the effect that the optical illusion garments had on their body shape. Women with a rectangle shape were the most predisposed to the impact of optical illusion garments. The rectangle-shaped women preferred garments that created a more ideal shape. Specifically, the simultaneous contrast and spatial effect garments, both of which they perceived to create the impression of an hourglass, were most preferred. Furthermore, data analysis revealed that women with a spoon body shape preferred garments that focused on the upper half of their bodies as well as those that created a sense of balance for their overall shape. This finding is supported by the self-discrepancy theory, as it confirmed the spoon-shaped women’s desire to appear more like the hourglass ideal, with a perception of balanced proportions.

In this exploratory study, the effects of wearing optical illusion garment were both positive and negative. Many, but not all, of the women believed that the optical illusion garments had a positive effect on how they perceived their shape and could increase their body shape satisfaction. This finding is also supported by self-discrepancy theory: When there is a discrepancy between the actual and ideal self, body satisfaction decreases (Higgins, 1987). In this case, an optical illusion garment can potentially bridge the gap between the ideal and actual self, resulting in higher body satisfaction. This benefit is dependent, however, on the participant’s personal preferences, body shape, and also the optical illusion under investigation.

Finally, we found that most women believed that they could achieve the perception of a more ideal body shape through the use of optical illusion garments. It was confirmed that all of the women who participated in the study, except those with an hourglass body shape, agreed that optical illusion garments were a viable way to achieve the perception of a more ideal body shape. Optical illusion garments were found to conceal flaws, accentuate different areas of the body, and balance proportions. Thus, based on body shape and personal preferences, the optical illusion garments had the potential to increase women’s body satisfaction.

The implications from this study pertain not only to women but also to apparel reailers and apparel designers. For instance, apparel designers might benefit from our apparel preference findings when designing clothing, based on consumer’s body shapes, that may then improve the consumer’s shopping experience. Thus, dissemenation of these findings as well as future findings in this area of research via scholarly journals and spotlight articles in popular fashion industry peridocials is warranted.

Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that digital garment creation and the use of avatars was a viable method to gain an understanding of the interaction between clothing, the body, and the wearer. This suggests that design researchers may be able to construct digital garments as a more sustainable method of practice. Resources allocated to traditional design practices are often substantial; therefore, creation in a digital environment may alleviate some of the financial and environmental burdens associated with traditional design practices.

Limitations and Future Research

In spite of these findings, the current study has a few limitations. As an exploratory study, the number and type of illusions were kept narrow. A study with additional illusions, color theory principles, or more extensive examination of the illusions used in the current study would provide additional insight. Finally, in order to gain a more holistic understanding as to how optical illusions influence body shape perception, future researchers should examine women outside the normal BMI range and/or who fall into other body shape categories. Of course, future researchers could also examine direct measures of body satisfaction, women’s reactions and interactions with their avatars, and health outcomes associated with women’s perception of their own digital bodies.

In conclusion, the exploratory nature of this study provides numerous avenues for additional research. This study was guided by the self-discrepancy theory to examine women’s self-perception of body shape while viewing their own avatars dressed in optical illusion garments. Based on results from this study, optical illusion garments indeed affect the visual perception of body shape and can result in the perception of a more ideal body shape.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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