Inspiration From Chinese Painting: A Feasibility Study of Using Chinese Ink as Pigment Colorant for a Wearable Art Collection

Abstract

Pigments are the most commonly used colorations, due to their ease of accessibility, and have been used for textile printing and pad-dyeing processes for many decades. This research on pigment dyeing was conducted as part of a wearable art design project inspired by the techniques and aesthetics of traditional Chinese painting. To preserve the spirit of the Chinese paintings, silk and cotton fabrics were used in submersion pigment dyeing and direct painting experiments with Chinese ink to determine their color strength, colorfastness, and fabric properties. Due to the results, the researchers were confident in the viability of using Chinese ink as the pigment colorant for dip dyeing and direct silk painting in the wearable arts. This research was also intended for students and designers as an example of how to use practical concepts of textile testing in innovative apparel design projects.

Keywords

Chinese ink pigment dyeing direct painting on silk wearable art collection

Pigments are the most commonly used colorants due to their ease of accessibility (Wang, Fang, & Ji, 2007) and have been used for textile printing and in the pad-dyeing process for decades (Li et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2007). Pigments have been touted for a number of critical advantages they hold over other dyes, including minimal chemical use, adaptability for application on nonfibers, and decreased time needed for dyeing (Kan & Man, 2017); however, the disadvantages of pigment dyeing include poor rubbing fastness properties and an increase in fabric stiffness (Hussain & Ali, 2009).

The current research on pigment dyeing was conducted as a part of a larger wearable art design project inspired by the techniques and aesthetics of traditional Chinese painting. Wearable art is “art composed of materials structured so they can be worn on the body and that exhibit visually exciting design elements and principles” (Bryant & Hoffman, 1994, p. 86). Chinese ink was the only medium used in Chinese painting for centuries before the use of mineral pigments, and it still remains the most important medium in Chinese paintings and calligraphy (Winter, 1974). Chinese ink, the sole painting material in Chinese painting, contains varying shades and gradients of gray and black and is capable of depicting the beauty and depth of all painted subjects. The choice of only gray and black carries the spirit of minimalism from Chinese culture, which holds that the infinite complexity of nature comes from the simple interaction of Yin (black) and Yang (white). Thus, being able to produce the quality of gradient shades on fabrics is essential to the inspiration of transferring Chinese painting to wearable art. Chinese ink is made of natural ingredients including carbon and fish glue or animal glue and vegetable or mineral oils (Kimura, Nakayama, Tsuchida, & Okubo, 2007; Winter, 1974). Compared to synthetic dyes, Chinese ink can easily generate a pure black to gray gradient. If applied to the design and production of wearable art, Chinese ink holds the possibility of transmitting the beauty and spirit of Chinese painting to garments through the degree of complexity, depth, and character the inks are capable of embodying. Thus, in this wearable art design project, it was important to first test the feasibility of using Chinese ink as a pigment colorant and textile painting media.

Chinese inks are available in solid stick and liquid forms. They differ from inks used in many Western countries for calligraphy and painting in the following ways: (a) The major ingredients of Chinese ink sticks are originally based in carbon in the form of pine soot or lampblack from oil lamps since around the 11th century and fish glue or other animal glue and vegetable or mineral oil (Kimura et al., 2007; Winter, 1974) and (b) the fish or animal glue fixes the fine particles of carbon together to form an ink stick, which is then used to paint on paper by brush (Laufer, 1973). The liquid ink contains the same ingredients as the solid ink stick—carbon, water, and glue—to stabilize suspension (Kimura et al., 2007).

The traditional applications of pigment colorants incorporated the use of binders to improve affinity and reactivity to fiber surfaces since pigments are insoluble in water (Wang et al., 2007). Some researchers (Gao et al., 2014; Li et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2007) have explored modifying fabrics with cationic and acidic reagents to improve fabric dyeing properties with anionic dyes and pigments (Fang, Zhang, Xu, & Zhang, 2010). For this study, salt (sodium chloride) was selected as the cationic agent added in the dye bath because salt would not change the color or shades of the hues. In addition, white vinegar was used to adjust the pH level in the pigment dye bath. Both salt and white vinegar are nontoxic and the least expensive and most convenient sources of binder and acid, especially for independent designers and beginning dyers. In this study, the pigments were applied via submersion and direct application into a pigment solution bath.

History of Chinese Ink

Ink in China plays important roles beyond its function as a writing and painting tool. The ink, brush, paper, and ink slab are termed the “four treasures of a scholar’s study” (Kecskes, 1986, p. 3), and Chinese ink and the brush are considered the “spirit and soul of Chinese painting and calligraphy” (Kecskes, 1986, p. 3). The use of Chinese ink can be traced back to around the 12th- century BC, when it was used to create art on animal bones and tortoise shells in China. The earliest use of solid Chinese ink was recorded during the 11th to 8th centuries BC and extensively used from 206 BC to 220 AD (Kecskes, 1986). Chinese paintings were originally captured on silk paper that was produced from silk refuse, including both raw and woven silk, starting in the third century (Laufer, 1973). In the late Tang dynasty (618–907) and Song dynasty (960–1279), silk became the preeminent medium for painting because of its lightweight nature and flexibility in application (Silbergeld, 1982). During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), paper became more popular among Chinese painters, due to its low cost and excellent absorbance (Laufer, 1973).

Research Purpose

Even though Chinese ink was very popular in the past as a painting medium on silk, there is a considerable lack of research on whether Chinese ink would be viable for pigment dyeing and direct painting on fabrics made from silk and cotton fibers, the intended fibers for the wearable art collection the designer/researcher planned to create. Systematic preliminary tests were conducted to evaluate the feasibilities of color strength, colorfastness, and substantive fabric properties and performance of Chinese ink on fabrics created from both silk and cotton. Salt (sodium chloride) and white vinegar, as a cationic imparting agent and pH controller, were investigated to determine whether they affected the viability of Chinese ink for submersion pigment dyeing and direct painting in creating the desired physical qualities on both types of fibers.

Experimental Methods

Materials

The ink used in this study was purchased in China from Yi De Ge Ink Store (Yidege Company, Beijing). In order to preserve the spirit of the Chinese paintings, wherein beauty derives from natural order as opposed to human rules, 100% cotton and 100% silk fabrics were chosen as possibilities for the wearable art design project, which was founded on the idea of an all-natural production of wearable art. In order to decide on 100% unbleached cotton fabric or 100% bleached cotton fabric for the project, an unbleached cotton percale sheeting (149 g/m², 60 warp ends/in. × 60 weft picks/in., Testfabrics, Inc.) and bleached cotton percale sheeting (151 g/m², 60 warp ends/in. × 60 weft picks/in., Testfabrics, Inc.) were tested using the same submersion dyeing processes. In addition, 100% silk charmeuse 20 momme (mm; 90 g/m², 80 warp ends/in. × 80 weft picks/in., natural white color, Testfabrics, Inc.) and 100% silk organza (25 g/m², 160 wrap ends/in. × 160 weft picks/in., natural white color, Testfabrics, Inc.) were both tested via submersion pigment dyeing and direct painting, as both fabrications were under consideration for the final design project.

The preparation of the fabric swatches adhered to the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC, 2008) test methods. Salt concentration groups are outlined in Appendix Table A1. Four types of fabric were cut into 2 × 6 in. for colorfastness to wash tests, 4 × 6 in. for colorfastness to light tests, and 2.25 × 2.25 in. for colorfastness to rubbing tests. The number of fabric swatches totaled 288 pieces including 48 pieces of standard swatches.

Dyeing and Direct Painting Procedures

Submersion dyeing

According to Flower’s (1986) research procedure, four groups were set up according to the percentage of salt—0% owf¹ (Flower, 1986), 5% owf, 10% owf, and 20% owf—and added into the dye bath during the heating period. Several trials were conducted to identify the appropriate amount of salt, which was based on the weight of the dry cloth but also determined by the light, medium, or dark shades the researcher hoped to obtain. The fabrics were dyed with 50% owf depth of dyeing at a liquid ratio of 1:50 (dry fabric:water). The temperature was raised to 176 °F for a period of over 60 min and was maintained at this level for 1 hr. The magnetic stirring bar was left at the bottom of the beaker to constantly stir the fabric and dye bath. Then, 2% omf² (Flower, 1986) white vinegar was added to the dyeing liquid. After a number of trials were performed to discern the most suitable amount of salt, the dye bath was left for 10 hr at room temperature in a closed container to prevent light bleaching. The dyed fabrics were rinsed well, and excess water was squeezed out by hand before the fabric samples were left to dry in the dark.

Direct painting on silk

White vinegar was added to the liquid Chinese ink to replace water as the mixing medium in order to form a permanent bond between the silk fiber protein and pigment colorant in a mildly acidic environment. Four groups of Chinese ink solutions were prepared: 1:0 (ink:white vinegar; control group), 1:0.5 (ink:white vinegar), 1:1 (ink:white vinegar), and 1:1:0.2 owf (ink:white vinegar:salt). Four clean and dry Chinese paintbrushes, one for each ink solution, were used to paint on each piece of the dry fabric. Then, the painted silk fabrics were left on a rack to dry, avoiding direct sunlight. Once the painted fabrics were completely dry, they were wrapped in white cotton muslin and tightened by a rubber band, then covered with aluminum foil (see Figure 1). The fabrics were steamed in a stainless steel pot for 30 min and left to cool and then rinsed in 1:1 water and white vinegar solution until the solution ran clear. The fabrics were then left in the dark to dry.

Figure 1.

Procedures of steaming the silk painting fabrics with cotton muslin and aluminum foil.

Color Strength Evaluation

Dyed fabrics were evaluated for their color strength using K/S values generated by a HunterLab ColorQuest XE® diffuse/8° Spectrophotometer. K/S is a function of color depth and is determined by the Kubelka and Munk equation (Etters & Hurwitz, 1986):

K/S = {(1 - R)}^{2} / 2 R,

where K is the coefficient of absorption, S is the scattering coefficient, and R is the reflectance value of the fabric at peak wavelength.

The relative color strength between the untreated fabric sample and the treated fabric sample was also obtained using the following equation:

Relative color strength (%) = (K/S of treated sample / K/S of untreated sample) \times 100.

To evaluate the color difference and color parameter, the CIE Lab system was used:

Δ E = \sqrt{{(Δ L)}^{2} + {(Δ a)}^{2} + {(Δ b)}^{2}},

where ΔE indicates the color difference between the standard sample and treated sample. L* describes the lightness value that runs from 0 (black) to 100 (white); the higher the L number, the lighter the color. The a* measures redness (+a*) or greenness (−a*), and b* measures yellowness (+b*) or blueness (−b*; Billmeyer & Saltzman, 1981; Marcus, 1998; Sarkar & Seal, 2003). There were five samples in each group that were dyed with the exact same solution and under the same temperature conditions; therefore, all reported data represented the mean of five measurements.

Colorfastness Evaluation

The cotton muslins and silk fabrics were tested according to AATCC (2008) standard methods. The specific tests addressed colorfastness to light (AATCC:16-2004; Suntest XLS+, Model ATLAS MTT GmbH, Germany), washing (AATCC: 61-2007; nonphosphate Tide household detergent; Launder-Ometer, Model M228AA, SDL Atlas, USA), and rubbing (AATCC:8-2007; Crockmaster crockmeter instrument, James Heal). The colorfastness and staining ratings were evaluated by comparisons using the Gray Scale for Evaluating Change in Color (International Organization for Standardization [ISO], 2016) and the Gray Scale for Evaluating Staining (ISO, 2016).

Results

Fabric Property of Submersion Dye Tests

Fabric properties and performance were different after dyeing for each fabric, with the exception of the silk charmeuse, which did not change. According to AATCC Evaluation Procedure 5-2006, after submersion dyeing, the fabric hand of the dyed, unbleached cotton muslin became smoother and draped better, while the bleached cotton and silk organza became rougher, stiffer, and lost comfort properties. There was excellent color uniformity in all fabrics, except for the bleached cotton, after submersion pigment dyeing with Chinese ink (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Fabric Properties and Performance Pre- and Post-Dyeing (AATCC Evaluation Procedure 5-2006).

		Dyeing	Fabric Properties
		Dyeing	Unbleached Cotton Muslin	Bleached Cotton Muslin	Silk Charmeuse	Silk Organza
Fabric hand	Smooth to rough	Pre	Rough	Rough	Smooth, silky	Smooth
Fabric hand	Smooth to rough	Post	Smooth	Rougher	Smooth, silky	Rough
Drape	Soft to stiff	Pre	Soft	Stiff	Soft	Stiff
Drape	Soft to stiff	Post	Softer	Stiffer	Soft	Stiff
Luster	Matte, luster	Pre	Matte	Matte	Luster	Luster
Luster	Matte, luster	Post	More matte	Matte	Luster	Less luster
Texture	Luster, appearance, comfort	Pre	Comfort	Appearance	Luster, comfort	Luster, comfort
Texture	Luster, appearance, comfort	Post	Comfort	Appearance	Luster, comfort	Luster, less comfort
Uniformity	Uniformity, nonuniformity	Pre	—	—	—	—
Uniformity	Uniformity, nonuniformity	Post	Uniformity	Nonuniformity	Uniformity	Uniformity

Note. AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

Color Strength and Colorfastness of Submersion Dye Tests

The K/S values and colors of the dyed fabrics with four salt concentrations are presented in Table 2. The K/S value of a dyed fabric sample is proportional to the amount of dye present in the fabric (Giri Dev, Venugopal, Sudha, Deepika, & Ramakrishna, 2009). The K/S values of silk organza and silk charmeuse were significantly increased as the salt concentration was increased to 10% and 20%. The K/S values of unbleached cotton were increased as the salt concentration was increased to 5% and 10% but dropped when the salt concentration was 20%. The K/S values of the bleached cotton were significantly increased when the salt concentrations were 10% and 20%. In Table 2, it is clearly shown that the relative color strength of the samples increases with the salt concentration in Chinese ink. The highest relative color strength observed was increased to 298%, compared to that of the control group in silk charmeuse dyed with 20% salt concentration. The lowest relative color strength observed was decreased to 90%, compared to that of the control group in silk organza dyed with a 5% salt concentration.

Table 2.

Spectrophotometer Characterization of Chinese Ink Dyed Samples.

Fabric	Salt Concentration (%)	K/S	Relative Color Strength (%)	L*	a*	b*	ΔE
Unbleached cotton	0 (standard)	3.84	100	36.21	1.01	2.46	—
	5	4.30	112	35.38	0.96	2.31	0.46
	10	5.14	134	31.55	0.73	2.29	4.29
	20	3.75	98	28.44	0.62	2.37	6.05
Bleached cotton	0 (standard)	3.62	100	38.78	1.42	−0.33	—
	5	3.33	92	41.11	1.45	−0.09	2.72
	10	3.90	108	36.33	1.35	−0.1	2.23
	20	3.98	110	35.54	1.3	0.05	2.04
Silk organza	0 (standard)	1.24	100	50.25	0.45	2.36	—
	5	1.12	90	46.58	0.65	2.49	3.52
	10	1.93	156	34.41	1.06	2.21	15.31
	20	1.69	136	32.75	1.04	2.04	16.36
Silk charmeuse	0 (standard)	1.48	100	45.97	1.07	2.88	—
	5	1.96	132	45.27	1.05	2.87	1.96
	10	3.86	261	26.93	0.87	2.74	18.62
	20	4.41	298	25.69	0.88	2.68	18.36

The evaluation of the color parameters and the color differences are also shown in Table 2. The L* values decreased with the increase in salt concentration, except in the 5% bleached cotton. There were significant color differences (ΔE) between the standard fabric sample, with different salt concentrations dyed to the same shade percentage. The ΔE values of all three fabric samples, except for bleached cotton, distinctly increased when the salt concentration surpassed 10%.

Textiles are commonly subjected to frequent washing, rubbing, and insolation. Thus, evaluating the colorfastness of the fabrics in these conditions is extremely important (Giri Dev et al., 2009). The colorfastness to washing ratings for each of the fabrics within the four groups of salt concentrations under five washing conditions is shown in Table 3. The ratings are based on the Gray Scale Grade, which uses a 1–5 range (1 = poor to 5 = excellent; ISO, 2016). Test No. 1A (repeated hand laundering) yielded the best wash fastness results. The wash fastness of all three types of fabrics, except for silk charmeuse, proved reasonable when withstanding repeated hand laundering sessions at a temperature of 105 ± 5 °F with 0% and 5% salt concentrations. The wash fastness of Test No. 2A (repeated low-temperature machine laundering in the home) was second to that of Test No. 1A. The results of colorfastness to washing of Tests No. 3A–5A were significantly poorer than those of Tests No. 1A and 2A. A significant color change in washing was observed at high salt concentrations for all four types of fabrics.

Table 3.

Colorfastness to Washing of Cotton Muslins and Silk Fabrics With Four Groups of Salt (AATCC:61-2007).

Test Number	Test Condition						Results
	Temperature	Total Liquor Volume (ml)	Percent Detergent of Total Volume (%)	Available Chlorine of Total Volume	Number of Steel Balls	Time (Minutes)	Fabric	Salt Concentration (%)
	Temperature	Total Liquor Volume (ml)	Percent Detergent of Total Volume (%)	Available Chlorine of Total Volume	Number of Steel Balls	Time (Minutes)	Fabric	0	5	10	20
1A (repeated hand laundering)	Five typical careful hand laundering at temperature of 105 ± 5 °F	200	.37	None	10	45	U cotton	5	5	4	3.5
							B cotton	4	4.5	4	4
							Charmeuse	4	3.5	1.5	1
							Organza	4	4	3	3
2A (repeated low-temperature machine laundering in the home)	Five home machine launderings at medium or warm setting in the temperature range of 100 ± 5 °F	150	.15	None	50	45	U cotton	4	5	4	3
							B cotton	4	4.5	4	4
							Charmeuse	4	3.5	1.5	1
							Organza	4	4	2.5	3
3A (textile considered washable under vigorous conditions)	Five home machine launderings at 140 ± 5 °F	50	.15	None	100	45	U cotton	3	3.5	3.5	2
							B cotton	2	2	2.5	2
							Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
							Organza	2	2	2	2
4A (textile laundered in the presence of available chlorine)	Five home machine launderings at 145 ± 5 °F with 3.74 g/L of 5% available chlorine per 3.6-kg load	50	.15	0.015%	100	45	U cotton	3	3.5	3.5	2
							B cotton	2	2	2.5	2
							Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
							Organza	2	2	2	2
5A (textile laundered in the presence of available chlorine)	Five home machine launderings at 120 ± 5 °F with 200 ± 1 ppm available chlorine	150	.15	0.027%	50	45	U cotton	3	3.5	4	2
							B cotton	2	2	2.5	2
							Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
							Organza	2	3	3	2

Note. AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

The results of colorfastness tests in rubbing of the cotton muslin fabric and silk fabrics (silk organza and silk charmeuse) dyed with Chinese ink in the four groups of salt concentrations are shown in Table 4. All four types of fabric samples, except for the silk charmeuse samples, displayed practically identical attributes regarding rubbing fastness. Dry rubbing fastness ratings were higher than wet rubbing fastness ratings on the unbleached cotton muslin, bleached cotton muslin, and silk organza. Poor dry rubbing fastness (3) and wet rubbing fastness (1-2 and 2) were observed on silk charmeuse with 0% and 10% salt concentrations. The ratings of wet rubbing staining of all four types of fabrics were between 1 and 2. The light fastness values of fabrics dyed with four groups of salt concentrations are shown in Table 5. The colorfastness of all four types of fabrics was excellent. There was no color change in the four groups of salt concentrations, as expected.

Table 4.

Colorfastness to Rubbing of Cotton Muslins and Silk Fabrics With Four Groups of Salt (AATCC:8-2007).

Fabric	Salt Concentration (%)	Dry Rubbing (Gray Scale Grade)	Dry Rubbing Staining (Gray Scale Grade)	Wet Rubbing (Gray Scale Grade)	Wet Rubbing Staining (Gray Scale Grade)
Unbleached cotton	0	4-5	3	4	1-2
	5	4-5	3	3	1-2
	10	4-5	2	3	1
	20	4	2	4	1
Bleached cotton	0	4	4	4	1
	5	4-5	4	3-4	1
	10	4-5	2-3	3-4	1-2
	20	4-5	1-2	4	1-2
Silk organza	0	4	4-5	3-4	2
	5	4-5	4-5	3-4	2
	10	4-5	3	3-4	1-2
	20	4-5	4-5	4-5	1-2
Silk charmeuse	0	3	1-2	1-2	1-2
	5	3-4	1-2	3	1-2
	10	3	1-2	2	1-2
	20	4-5	1-2	4	1

Note. AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

Table 5.

Colorfastness to Light of Cotton Muslins and Silk Fabrics With Four Groups of Salt (AATCC:16-2004).

Fabric	Salt Concentration (%)	Change in Color (Gray Scale Grade)
Unbleached cotton	0	4-5
	5	4-5
	10	5
	20	4
Bleached cotton	0	4
	5	5
	10	4-5
	20	5
Silk organza	0	5
	5	4-5
	10	5
	20	4-5
Silk charmeuse	0	5
	5	5
	10	4
	20	4-5

Note. AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

Colorfastness of Direct Painting on Silk Tests

The feasibility of using Chinese ink solutions (including salt and white vinegar) on hand-painted silk organza and silk charmeuse was evaluated using tests of colorfastness to washing (AATCC:61-2007) and light (AATCC:16-2004). According to results shown in Table 6, the wash fastness of silk charmeuse was very poor. Good colorfastness to hand laundering was observed on hand-painted silk organza samples using 1:0.5 and 1:1 ink to white vinegar ratios at a temperature of 105 ± 5 °F. However, the wash fastness of silk organza was poor when laundered in home machines. As shown in Figure 2, the silk organza and silk charmeuse were painted with 20% owf salt, which resulted in white spots on the surface of the fabric after the wash fastness test.

Table 6.

Colorfastness to Washing of Silk Fabrics With Four Groups of White Vinegar and Salt (AATCC:61-2007).

Test Number	Fabric	No Vinegar	1:0.5 (I:V)	1:1 (I:V)	1:1 (I:V)/20% Salt
1A	Charmeuse	3.5	3	3.5	2.5
1A	Organza	5	5	5	4.5
2A	Charmeuse	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5
2A	Organza	1.5	4	4.5	2
3A	Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
3A	Organza	2	2	2	2
4A	Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
4A	Organza	2	2	2	2
5A	Charmeuse	1	1	1	1
5A	Organza	2	3	3	2

Note. I:V = ink:vinegar; AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

Figure 2.

Hand-painted fabrics with 20% owf salt in the painting solution.

As shown in Table 7, the colorfastness to light of both silk organza and silk charmeuse was excellent. As for the result of the light fastness test of submersion dyes, there were almost no color changes within the four groups of vinegar ratios and salt concentrations. The values of L* decreased with the increase in the white vinegar ratio, indicating that the fabric samples became darker and darker in comparison to the standard sample (1:0 ink:vinegar), except for the fabric samples painted with a 20% salt concentration (see Table 8). There were significant color differences (▵E) between the standard fabric samples and the fabric samples painted with the varying white vinegar ratios. The ΔE values of both silk charmeuse and silk organza significantly increased when the white vinegar ratio was 1:0.5 and 1:1.

Table 7.

Colorfastness to Light of Silk Fabrics With Four Groups of White Vinegar and Salt (AATCC:16-2004).

Fabric	No Vinegar	1:0.5 (I:V)	1:1 (I:V)	1:1 (I:V)/20% Salt
Charmeuse	4	5	5	4
Organza	5	5	5	5

Note. I:V = ink:vinegar; AATCC = American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

Table 8.

Spectrophotometer Characterization of Direct Silk Painting Samples.

Fabrics	Ratios (I:V)	L*	a*	b*	ΔE
Silk charmeuse	1:0*	27.55	.55	1.56	—
	1:0.5	25.04	.13	−1.90	25.11
	1:1	23.80	.16	−1.60	23.85
	1:1/20% salt	24.14	.03	−2.36	24.26
Silk organza	1:0*	28.75	.90	−0.11	—
	1:0.5	27.41	.73	−0.35	27.42
	1:1	26.21	.94	−0.52	26.23
	1:1/20% salt	29.01	.46	−0.56	29.02

Note. 1:0* is the standard sample. I:V = ink:vinegar.

Discussion

In this study, a salt (sodium chloride) and white vinegar solution was chosen as the cationic imparting agent and pH controller to evaluate binding the pigment onto the fabric surface and eliminating the color change. These compounds are also the most affordable and attainable cationic and acid agents for the individual wearable art designer. Four salt concentrations were tested in this study in order to evaluate the proper conditions for the submersion dye. The color strength and colorfastness to washing, rubbing, and light were assessed as controls for dyeing quality. The color strength and hue were increased with an increase in salt concentration, an effect that was particularly prominent when the salt concentration exceeded 10%. The wash fastness of silk organza and silk charmeuse was poorer compared to that of two types of cotton muslin. Similar to the rubbing fastness, the dry and wet rubbing fastness results using silk charmeuse were relatively poor. It is possible that the density of the fabrics affects the rubbing fastness because silk charmeuse has a higher fabric density and smoother surface compared to the other three types of fabrics. The light fastness results in all four types of fabrics were excellent because of the carbon particles present in the Chinese ink. Thus, according to the L* value and K/S value readings, a 20% salt concentration was adopted in the dyeing of the silk fabrics for the larger wearable art design collection in order to achieve a darker black hue.

Colorfastness was tested by directly painting on silk organza and silk charmeuse. In the results from the direct painting tests, it was demonstrated that both silk organza and silk charmeuse held excellent colorfastness to light but poor wash fastness, due to the lack of bonding between the carbon particles and the fibers. Future researchers should investigate the causes of white spots appearing after the wash fastness test in direct painting on silk with 20% owf salt.

Implementation of the Preparation Tests on the Design Research

Valuable information on using Chinese inks in the creation of the wearable arts resulted from this study. The optimal conditions for performing submersion pigment dyeing and direct painting with Chinese inks were tested using AATCC methods. The salt concentration or the amount of the Chinese ink was adjusted to obtain a variety of gray and black hues. The colors dyed by Chinese ink are pure and have no colorcast compared with other darker color natural dyes or synthetic dyes. The carbon particles in wastewater also settle easily due to their weight and could be separated from the effluent.

Silk charmeuse was found to be the most suitable fabric for a dip dye technique for the design collection since it maintains the most luster and generates a soft feel with the best light fastness compared to cotton fabrics. The silk charmeuse underwent fabric manipulation techniques before being dyed due to its poor rubbing fastness. The 14-mm silk organza sample was the most suitable fabric for direct painting, due to its excellent light fastness and wash fastness under the particular conditions. The results of poor colorfastness to washing and rubbing were not critical to the wearable art, as long as the pieces created from Chinese inks were carefully hand-washed at temperatures below 105 ± 5 °F when necessary. The 1:1 white vinegar to ink ratio is recommended for the direct painting of silk organza due to excellent colorfastness of hand laundering at a low temperature. Unbleached and bleached cotton muslins were not considered for the design project since the textures, fastness, and performance were not suited for this collection.

A successful design relies on the performance of textiles; therefore, textile testing as part of wearable art design research is critical to designers. The creative scholarship project following the textile test will be elaborated in future work.

Limitations and Future Study

The quality and the content of the carbon of Chinese ink may affect the results of submersion pigment dyeing and direct painting. There are several directions for future researchers: (a) investigate whether adding a chemical cationic dispersing agent, such as octadecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (Li et al., 2015), can enhance the rubbing and washing fastness properties of the dyed silk fabrics; (b) test if Chinese ink can be mixed with other natural dyes extracted from fruits, vegetables, or plants to adjust the hue of the colors; and (c) determine whether homemade fresh soy milk can be used as a binder to fix the Chinese ink to the fabrics, similar to an old Japanese technique (McPherson, 2008).

Footnotes

Appendix A

Table A1.

Quantity of Testing Fabric Swatches and Salt and White Vinegar Concentrations.

Salt Concentration (%)	White Vinegar (% Amount of Water)	Quantity of Fabric Swatches
Salt Concentration (%)	White Vinegar (% Amount of Water)	Colorfastness Tests	Bleached Cotton	Unbleached Cotton	Silk Organza	Silk Charmeuse
0	2	Washing	5	5	5	5
		Coloring	5	5	5	5
		Rubbing	5	5	5	5
		K/S	3	3	3	3
5	2	Washing	5	5	5	5
		Coloring	5	5	5	5
		Rubbing	5	5	5	5
		K/S	3	3	3	3
10	2	Washing	5	5	5	5
		Coloring	5	5	5	5
		Rubbing	5	5	5	5
		K/S	3	3	3	3
15	2	Washing	5	5	5	5
		Coloring	5	5	5	5
		Rubbing	5	5	5	5
		K/S	3	3	3	3
20	2	Washing	5	5	5	5
		Coloring	5	5	5	5
		Rubbing	5	5	5	5
		K/S	3	3	3	3
		Total	72	72	72	72

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Chunhui Xiang

Notes

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