Song Brocade in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Abstract

Song brocade is Chinese traditional brocade that originated in the Song dynasty but flourished in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Its delicate patterns, graceful colors, and exquisite techniques show the unique craftsmanship of ancient China. The fabric structure, pattern, and weaving technique had changed greatly because of the social environment, cultural customs, and other factors during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This article proposed a new series of classification for Song brocade patterns in Ming and Qing dynasties and recurred the fabric weave of Song brocade in Ming and Qing dynasties. Besides, the research provided a concise English-language description of historical background, varieties, and specifications based primarily on Chinese-language research publications.

Keywords

Song brocade patterns and colors weaving techniques Chinese textiles textile patterns

Brocade has a very long history in China. The scholars Zhou and Liu (2013) indicate that the history of brocade can be traced back to the Zhou dynasty (1046–56 BCE), where it was regarded as a symbol of social identity, prestige, and status. In 2007, in Jing’an, Jiangxi—a province in the People’s Republic of China and within the Zhou dynasty’s boundaries—several brocade fragments (Figure 1) were unearthed from the Grand Tomb of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BCE). These pieces of brocade have a high warp density and are still brilliantly colorful (Qian et al., 2010). Confucian scholar Liu Xiang (77–6 BCE), writing in 17 BCE, included comments about Duke Ping, a royal figure of the Jin state during the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE) noted that Duke Ping of Jin sent Xiang Shu as an envoy to visit the Wu State, the people of Wu State welcomed him [and he reported that] these people wear brocade (Liu, 1992, p. 372). Through envoy Xiang Shu’s observation, we learn that brocade was known in the Southern Yangtze region during the Spring and Autumn period, which ended in 476 BCE and that local dignitaries were using it for clothing. Thus, both material objects and literary descriptions confirm that brocade has existed since at least 2,500 years ago.

Figure 1.

Detail of a brocade fragment of the Eastern Zhou dynast (770–221 BCE) excavated in 2007 at Jing’an, Jiangxi province. Source: Suzhou Qian XiaoPing Ancient Silk Copy Institute, Suzhou 215001, China.

Through jacquard or other weaving process, brocade fabric employs colored warp and weft threads to create surface patterns. Rich, heavy, jacquard-woven fabric features raised floral or figured patterns emphasized by contrasting surfaces and/or colors. Satin or twill figures on plain, twill, or satin grounds may be used. Often brocade is made with gold or silver threads. The design (of motifs or patterns) appears on the face of the fabric, which is distinguished easily from the back. Brocade was originally an elegant, heavy silk fabric with a floral or figured pattern woven with gold or silver thread, produced in China and Japan (Tortora & Merkel, 1996).

There are many varieties of Chinese brocade throughout textile history. Among these varieties, the most famous are Shu brocade, named for the region in the current Sichuan Province; Yun brocade, named for a textile design motif; and Song brocade, named for the dynasty. Collectively, the three are known as “Three Famous Brocades” (Qian, 2011, p. 1). Shu brocade originated during the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE) and flourished in the Han–Tang period (202 BCE–907 CE). Yun brocade originated in the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE) and flourished in the time of the Ming (1368–1662 CE) and Qing (1636–1911 CE) dynasties. Yun brocade adopts the Wahua¹ technique, which makes the fabric colorful and thick. Song brocade originated in the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) and flourished in the Ming and Qing periods (1368–1911 CE). Compared with Shu and Yun brocade, Song brocade’s distinctive style, defined by a light texture, delicate patterns, and changeable colors, sets it apart. Song brocade weavers adopted the unique Huose technique, in which multiple weft shuttles are used to create colors that changed as the fabric is viewed from different viewing angles. Qian (2012), an expert in Song brocade weaving describes the process thus:

Song brocade is a brocade with weft and warp floats, and it has the Song dynasty artistic style. The brocade of the Ming and Qing periods that used warp-twill for the ground and weft-twill for the pattern is called Song-style brocade or imitation Song brocade. But they are collectively called Song brocade. (p. 34)

Song brocade is culturally significant as it has historical, scientific, artistic, and applied value. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the germination of capitalist production, prosperity in commerce, improvement in political relations, and cultural maturity were very closely related to the development of the Song brocade industry. Breakthroughs in weaving technique and technology led to innovation in fabric structure and expanded the artistic style of Song brocade, providing great advantage to the fabric in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and enabling it to survive today (Zhao, 2005). Because of its unique style and intricate craft, Song brocade served a range of uses, including for clothing of emperors and queens, and as gifts for foreign envoys.

In this article, we propose new Song brocade subclassifications in the Ming and Qing dynasties based upon artifacts recovered from a Ming and Qing dynasties’ tomb and upon historical materials and documents. We also developed five common Song brocade weave diagrams based on modern textile–creation processes used to reconstruct the Song brocade fabric structure of the Ming and Qing dynasties. We provide a concise, English-language historical background, variants, and specifications of Song brocade based primarily on Chinese-language research publications, particularly the book Chinese Song brocade (Qian, 2012).

The Historical Background of Song Brocade

The Song dynasty was established without large-scale wars, and its emperors tended to implement civil administrations. The first emperor of the Song dynasty, Zhao Kuangyin (927–976 AD), established a policy of encouraging agriculture and rewarding silk weaving, which promoted the development of the silk industry. Consequently, Song brocade developed rapidly. It had a stable output every year, and the weaving technique gradually matured as patterns were increasingly enriched. When faced with foreign invasions, the imperial court had to pay tribute to their invaders to ensure peace and stability. Song brocade held high value and played a role in such tribute, along with gold and silver. Meanwhile, the imperial court rewarded its civil service officials with Song brocade for meritorious performance of their duties. In this relatively stable and prosperous political environment, Song brocade developed a unique style as well as social and political significance.

In 1206 AD, the Mongolians successively attacked the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Western Xia, Khwarezm, and Jin and united them. They ruled the Central Plains of China and built the Yuan Dynasty. During the process of sweeping through Eurasia and gaining control, the Mongolians were influenced by the cultures of west Asia and Europe, which in turn influenced the style of Song brocade (X. Yang, 2013). “When Mongolian horsemen overran the south, the refined and graceful style characteristic of the Song was supplanted in part by a style described as highly developed and magnificent” (Zhao et al., 2012, p. 324). Due to the influence of Islamic aesthetics on Mongol culture, Mongolian rulers favored textiles with intricately detailed Islamic patterns over those of Song brocade. However, the Mongols captured many skilled weavers in Southwest Asia during their conquering wars, which brought non-Chinese elements into the pattern designs of Song brocade during this ere.

After the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1388 CE, the founding emperor Zhu Yuanzhang adopted a series of policies for farming and sericulture that promoted the development of Song brocade. During this period, the government-run weaving and dyeing institutions developed rapidly, and the offices of weaving and dyeing in Suzhou and Hangzhou were the most representative. Take Suzhou as an example. In the early Ming Dynasty, according to historical records, “the institutions of weaving and dyeing in Suzhou included more than 1,700 weavers and nearly 300 workshops, which was the basis for the prosperity of the industry” (Fan & Jin, 1993, p. 114). Although silk production shrank during the reign of Jiajing (1522–1566 CE), there were nearly 700 weavers who could produce thousands of pieces of silk per year (Fan, 2016). With the obvious commercialized production and specialized division of labor in the silk industry, there was also a rapidly growing silk weaving industry in the Southern Yangtze region, particularly in Suzhou. Researcher A. Q. Yang (2016) explained that there were “weavers weaving in every room at the east of the towns” (p. 16). In the Song brocade fabrics that have been preserved from the Ming dynasty, we can see that the patterns are formed by clear geometric backgrounds and intricate plant designs.

During the prosperous era of Kangxi and Qianlong (1681–1795 CE), looms were increasingly improved. Meanwhile, a large number of weaving bureaus were set up, which greatly promoted the development and innovation of Song brocade weaving techniques. However, the production of Song brocade seriously decreased. Factors influencing this decrease included disruptions in the silk industry caused by the invasions of Western powers including Britain, France, Germany, and Russia, and a domestic rebellion in the late Qing dynasty. After the first Opium War (1840–1842 CE), the silk looms in the Southern Yangtze region were reduced by half due to the Revolution of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864 CE) and the consequent suppression of Qing government forces (Fan & Jin, 1993).

Since the 20th century, the textile industry in China has been deeply affected by Western industrialization. Western textile machines were imported into China and gradually replaced traditional looms, and the weaving techniques of Song brocade were nearly lost due to the social upheavals of the time. At the beginning of the 21st century, Xiaoping Qian investigated Song brocade weaving technique and that research resulted in the 2012 publication of her book Chinese Song brocade. With her research team, Xiaoping Qian collected and analyzed techniques of surviving Song brocade artifacts. Meanwhile, the research team began to use their findings to restore precious Song brocade cultural artifacts. In 2006, Song brocade was listed in The National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of China and recognition and appreciation of Song brocade grew:

In 2009, Song brocade was entered on the [UNESCO] World Intangible Cultural Heritage list. In 2014, Song brocade made a splendid show at the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation group) meeting; it realized the magnificent transformation from inheritance to legend. (Sun et al., 2016, p. 14)

Our work expands upon the research led by Xiaoping Qian.

Song Brocade Varieties and Specifications in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Varieties

Qian (2005) defined four categories of Song brocade of the Ming and Qing dynasties: double brocade, silk brocade, box brocade, and tiny brocade. The four types of Song brocade were determined according to refinement of technique, fabric quality, fabric thickness, and fabric function.

Double brocade (chong jin)

Double brocade is the most valuable kind of Song brocade. It adopts two groups of warp yarns. Plied yarns of silk with the sericin (refined silk) and dyed silk are used as the ground warp, and single-strand silk yarns or plied, light-colored silk yarns are used as the face warp. Multiple groups of refined and dyed silk or golden silk are used as the weft. Double brocade employs rich colors and various motifs. It can be used for decoration and furnishings such as hanging scrolls, pads, table coverings, and floor coverings. The magnificent and colorful double-brocade hanging scroll titled Sukhāvatī (The Pure Lands; Figure 2), in the collection of the Palace Museum, shows the highest level of Song brocade techniques during the Qianlong period (1736–1799 CE).

Figure 2.

Sukhāvatī (The Pure Lands), Qianlong period, 1736–1795 AD, 448 cm long, 196.3 cm width.

Silk brocade (xi jin)

The most common and representative category of Song brocade, silk brocade, uses a fabric structure that resembles that of double brocade. To create patterns, a short-throwing shuttle is used for weaving the main floral motifs, while a long-throwing shuttle is used for weaving geometric motifs, flower branches, leaves, stems, motif edges, and so forth (Qian, 2011). Because of its easy production method and moderate thickness, silk brocade is widely used for making clothes, mounting pictures, and decorating valuable gifts. A typical silk brocade may be observed in the textile woven in the Qiulu ² or lunar white dragon pattern (Figure 3), now in the collection of the Palace Museum.

Figure 3.

Detail of Song brocade in a harmonious color combination in the Qiulu or lunar white dragon pattern of circle and oblong motifs, Kangxi’s reign (1661–1722 AD) of the Qing dynasty. Source: The Palace Museum, Beijing 100000, China.

Box brocade (xia jin)

Box brocade is a middle-grade variety of Song brocade. Plied yarns of degummed silk and dyed silk are used as the warp, while dyed silk plied yarns are used as a ground weft. Dyed cotton yarns or dyed silk plied yarns are used as the pattern weft. Despite having two sets of weft yarns, the total weft is sparse, resulting in soft and thin fabric. The back of box brocade is coated with a thin layer of starch to make the fabric stiff and smooth, and it is therefore suited for use in mounting medium- and low-grade calligraphy and painting. Box brocade (Figure 4) uses the Huose technique, discussed below, to add colors.

Figure 4.

Box brocade woven using the Huose technique to create multiple colors. Source: Qian (2012).

Tiny brocade (xiao jin)

Tiny brocade is a low-grade variety of brocade derived from Song brocade. Because tiny brocade is used for mounting pictures and produced in the same factory as Song brocade, it is classified as a border category of Song brocade (Qian, 2012). Plied yarns of dyed silk are used as the warp and plied yarns of raw silk are used as the weft. Common weave structures used in making tiny brocade are satin weave and rearranged twill. Tiny brocade is thin because of its low thread count. It is used for small decorative fabrics that are often used in delicately crafted boxes, such boxes for fans and tableware. Moonbeam pattern is a typical tiny brocade pattern consisting of stripes and various colors.

Fabric Specifications

The fabric specifications of Song brocade (Table 1) in the Ming and Qing dynasties are relatively simple due to the limitations of fibers, yarns, looms, and weaving techniques. Generally, Song brocade is woven with two warps. The main warp separates the two wefts. One weft shows on the fabric face. The other warp, called the binding warp³ is visible on the fabric back. Multiple sets of weft are selected according to the fabric style and complexity of the motifs and overall pattern.

Table 1.

Fabric Specifications of Song Brocade in Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Specifications	Content
Warp density	A: 72 counts/cm B: 24 counts/cm
Weft density	Single weft: 24 counts/cm
Basic weave	Three twill weave
Warp combination	A: (1/28/30D raw silk 8T/M*2) 6T/M refined and dyed silk
Warp combination	B: 1/40/44D raw silk
Weft combination	A: 2/40/44D refined and dyed silk
	B, C, D: 3/50/70D refined and dyed silk
	E: 3/50/70D refined and dyed silk (using Huose technique)
	F: 3/50/70D refined and dyed silk (using Huose technique)
Picking order of weft	A→B→C→D→E→F

Source: Qian (2012).

The basic Song brocade weaves of the Ming and Qing dynasties are 1/2 weft-faced twill and 2/1 warp-faced twill. Selected common Song brocade weaves are diagrammed in Figure 5. They use a warp with a 3:1 ratio and four wefts with a 1:1:1:1 ratio; this means there are three same-specification warp yarns (A) with one different warp yarn (B), and four different-specification weft yarns (A, B, C, D). The specifications of each yarn are listed in Table 1.

Figure 5.

Five Common Song brocade weave diagrams. □: Weft interlacing point. ▪: Warp interlacing point of warp with first weft. ▴: Warp interlacing point of warp with second weft. •: Warp interlacing point of warp with third weft. ⋆: Warp interlacing point of warp with fourth weft.

Song Brocade Patterns and Colors in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

The Patterns

Each category of Song brocade uses specific characteristic patterns and/or motifs. Double brocade designed to decorate the imperial court often uses patterns that refer to Buddhist and mythological stories. The patterns of silk brocade feature flower and plant motifs with geometric elements; the patterns called sidayun, liudayun, badayun,⁴ and Qiulu are formed by filling in a framework or grid of repeated discs, tortoiseshell shapes, squares, or Mizi-grid.⁵ The patterns of box brocade and tiny brocade are mostly geometric figures and flowers. The common motifs of Song brocade patterns in the Ming and Qing dynasties are listed in Table 2.

Table 2.

Motif Categories and Designs of Song Brocade in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Categories	Motifs
Plant (Figure 7)	Peony, lotus, chrysanthemum, camellia, plum, peach blossom, pine, vine, blooming flowers
Animal (Figure 3)	Dragon, mythical birds, lion, kirin, deer, crane, fish, bee, lingjiu, bat, mandarin duck, peacock
Artifact (Figure 6)	From the eight auspicious Buddhist symbols: conch, precious umbrella, lotus, Aquarius, goldfish, auspicious knot, golden wheel, DHVAJA From the eight precious treasures: flaming pearl, ancient coin, Ruyi (jade ornamental object), scepter, two rhinoceros horns, coral, silver ingot, pair of books From the eight immortals of Taoism: sword, banana fan, gourd, flower basket, lotus, flute, fish drum, yin, and yang scepter
Geometry (Figure 6)	Circle, tortoiseshell, wàn ( 卍 )
Human (Figure 2)	Children, immortal
Nature (Figure 3)	Cloud, water, ice, snow

Source: Chen (1992).

Cultural Connotation of Patterns and Motifs

According to A. Q. Yang (2016), “The patterns of Song brocade in the Ming and Qing dynasties are derived from folklore, religious art, and the objects used by feudal ruling classes and wealthy merchants” (p. 34). Song brocade textile patterns are influenced by cultural context. Cultural heritage has long been present in political, religious, and social values, influencing descriptions of nature, social phenomena, human desires, and impulses to give and receive good wishes. The patterns became an indispensable part of life. Duan (1999) explained that patterns “must possess not only an artistic appearance, but also auspicious implications, where patterns nearly reach the point that the picture must be intentional and the meaning must be propitious” (p. 2).

Weavers in the Ming and Qing dynasties wove such auspicious patterns into their silk textiles including Song brocade. The varieties of auspicious animals and plants were greatly enriched in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The motifs of auspicious animals observed in textiles and other decorative arts include Kyrin Bringing a Boy (implying a Chinese desire to have male heirs in the family); Crane Celebrating Birthday (implying a Chinese belief that the crane is a bird of the immortals, thus a symbol of longevity); Three Rams Bringing Bliss (referring to a Chinese saying about lunar phenology and good wishes); the colorful peony (implying great wealth); and so forth. It is rare to see auspicious animals in Song brocade patterns; however, it is very typical to see auspicious plants as motifs such as in patterns using the pomegranate (implying offspring), the lotus (implying purity and integrity), and the plum blossom (implying moral loftiness). These plants are each endowed with auspicious meanings in Chinese culture that convey expectations for a better life.

Most Song brocade patterns are combinations of motifs that convey a specific theme. Once the motifs are combined, the total pattern presents unique characteristics and unique auspicious implications such as longevity and happiness, more sons and grandsons, good luck, official promotion, earning wealth, or a harmonious matrimonial life. People express happiness for a bumper harvest through motifs such as lanterns or various types of miscellaneous treasures that are used to fill circle or square motifs. People share thoughts for best wishes through combining the wan (卍, a Buddhist symbol) and Ruyi (a jade ornamental object).

Colors

Song Yingxing (1587–1666 CE), a famous encyclopedist of the 17th-century Ming dynasty, recorded his culture’s agricultural production, including sericulture, and handicraft technologies in his book Tiangong kaiwu (The exploitation of the works of nature; 1637). He recorded that plant and mineral colorants used for silk dyeing and surface coloration. Minerals such as cinnabar, chrysocilla (for mineral greens), malachite, orpiment (a yellow–orange), and realgar (ruby of arsenic) were mixed with a binder and then printed on the fabric surface. Plant dyes such as madder, indigo, and gardenia derive from the flowers, leaves, stems, and roots of color-yielding plants. To bring colors to Song brocade, the first step was to dye the silk yarns, which were often plied, according to the needed colors. The hand dyeing processes required skill and the resulting color vocabulary allowed Song brocade to possess its so-called graceful and refined style.

The colors of Song brocade included greens, yellows, reds white, and black, which are influenced by theories of Yin–Yang and by the five elements from ancient Chinese beliefs (Qian, 2012). Double brocade is the most colorful kind of Song brocade; silk brocade is similar in terms of colors but without gold thread in the weft. Tiny brocade and box brocade have fewer colors.

Qian (2012) explains that “there are mainly three methods of combining colors: same-color combinations, harmonious color combinations and contrasting color combination” (p. 35). For same-color, or monochromatic, combinations (Figure 6), the ground pattern must be clear and the colors of the ground weft and warp must be similar. Figure 3 shows a harmonious color combination of bright yellow, muddy gold, beige, and blue gray. The purity and brightness of colors should be harmonized to meet tonal requirements without dullness. Figure 7 shows a contrasting color combination of red, green, cyan, orange, and other colors to achieve harmony in contrast.

Figure 6.

Detail of Song brocade with wàn ( 卍 ) and tangled lotus motifs in a same-color combination, Ming dynasty (1368–1634 AD). Source: The Palace Museum, Beijing 100000, China.

Figure 7.

Detail of Song-style brocade using a contrasting color combination with a ground of persimmon red enhanced by multiple colors of silk yarns to weave the motifs of pantao (peach) and other flowers organized within interlocking circles with rope-like boarders, Hongwu’s reign (1368–1398 AD) in the Ming dynasty. Source: The Palace Museum, Beijing 100000, China.

Weaving Techniques

Song brocade weaving was generally conducted using a draw loom. Song (1637) recounted that a draw loom with a minor pattern sheet was used to weave small symmetrical patterns and that a draw loom with a major pattern sheet was used to weave asymmetric patterns (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Inclined “drawloom” (hualou) with a major pattern sheet, from a copy of the handscroll Tiangong Kaiwu, Ming dynasty, 1368–1644 AD. Source: Song (1637).

Song brocade weaving is highly complex. Qian (2015) lists “more than 30 processes” in the steps from design to manufacture (p. 3). These include drawing the pattern grid, picking and knotting the yarns, preparing the yarn for the warp and weft, preparing the loom, and finally weaving. These processes should be completed by a team and must be done by hand. Three key processes are described in the following sections.

Huose Technique

Song brocade in the Ming and Qing dynasties inherited its technique for a multicolored weft from the Tang dynasty. Song brocade developed the Huose technique, which could increase the number of visible colors far beyond the multiple weft colors. “The Huose technique can continuously change colors by use of a picking shuttle, and its ingenuity lies in that it can reduce cost by increasing colors without making the fabric too thick” (Qian, 2012, p. 88). As mentioned previously, the effect is of color change that results from light reflection on the various colored yarns as the fabric moves. The box brocade in Figure 4 was woven using the Huose technique.

Flower-Picking and Flower-Setting Technique

Flower-picking and flower-setting is a core weaving technique for Song brocade. Flower-picking and flower-setting include yarn preparation in which silk thread is used as the warp and cotton thread is used as the weft. Once set up, the weaver creates floral patterns according to the pattern grid by the picking process that inserts weft yarns through the warp yarns.

Double-Beam Technique

Most Song brocades utilize two groups of warp yarns in the weaving processes (i.e., the ground warp and the face warp), and the two groups of warp yarns differ in fiber and interweaving rules. Qian (2015) reports that, “In order to prevent warp breaks caused by uneven tension, double warp beam looms are selected. Generally, the face warp is placed on the upper shaft, while the ground warp is placed on the lower shaft” (p. 4).

Conclusion

The combined Ming and Qing dynasties were an important era in the development of Song brocade. We have proposed new subclassifications for Song brocade of the Ming and Qing dynasties based on artifacts recovered from a Ming and Qing dynasties’ tomb. Historical materials and documents were also examined. We applied five common Song brocade weave diagrams in a modern textile weaving process to reconstruct the fabric structure of Ming and Qing dynasties Song brocade. Significantly, we have provided a concise English-language description of historical background, varieties, and specifications of Song brocade based primarily on Chinese-language research publications including the book Chinese Song brocade (Qian, 2012).

According to the fineness of craftsmanship, quality of materials, thickness of fabric, and end use, Song brocades of the Ming and Qing dynasties were placed into four categories: double brocade, silk brocade, box brocade, and tiny brocade. The structure of these brocades is relatively fixed. Most of them are 1/2 weft-faced twill and 2/1 warp-faced twill. The brocade patterns were divided into motif categories such as animals and plants, geometric shapes, figures natural forms, and so on. These motifs can be used alone or combined according to the intended theme. There are three main methods of combining colors: same-color combinations, harmonious color combinations, and contrasting color combinations. The main colors used are cyan, yellow, red, white, and black. Song brocade weaving techniques in the Ming and Qing dynasties include Huose technique, flower-picking and flower-setting technique, and double-beam technique; among these, the Huose technique is still in use today.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by Zhejiang Cultural Relics Protection Science and Technology Project (Grant/Award Number: 2017015); Zhejiang Philosophy & Social Science Key Research Base, Zhejiang History and Culture Research Center Research Result (Grant/Award Number: 16JDGH016); Zhejiang Sci-Tech University

ORCID iD

Zimin Jin

Notes

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