Textiles Literacy: Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning in a Basic Textiles Class

Abstract

Learning about textiles provides students with an essential foundation of knowledge for a career in fashion. More research is needed to help students with comprehension and application of knowledge, or textiles literacy. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of inquiry-based learning, a versatile student-driven pedagogy, in a basic textiles course. The inquiry-based project titled “Textiles Literacy” was developed to promote understanding and application of knowledge over memorization. Through group-led inquiry, students learned about textiles by applying creativity, critical thinking, literacy, communication, and teamwork skills. At the conclusion of the project, students responded to five open-ended questions about their project experience. Analysis resulted in five primary themes: impact on understanding textiles, role of textiles in fashion, attitude, skills and knowledge, and likelihood to seek further knowledge. Overall, the inquiry-based learning “Textiles Literacy” project had a positive impact on student appreciation, and attitude toward learning about textiles.

Keywords

active learning pedagogy textiles inquiry-based learning literacy STEM 21st century skills problem-based learning

Textiles play an important role in our global economy and are a fundamental component of fashion production; therefore, textile content is an important foundation within the fashion curriculum in higher education institutions (Banjeree & Alvares, 2020; Hamstech, 2017). The textiles industry makes up a large portion of the 341,300 textile and apparel jobs in the United States and is projected to have a global worth of $1,412.5 billion USD in 2028 (Grand View Research, 2021; Industry & Analysis Unit, n.d.). Knowledge about the appearance, feel, and drape of a textile, as well as the ability to envision the impact of the textile choices on the final garment are skills that are important for fashion professionals to learn in an academic course (Hamstech, 2017). Having a good understanding of textiles and fabric properties is especially emphasized in fashion design, where appropriate fabrics are selected based on the intended end use of a design. Established fashion designers admit that the “textiles are the main ingredient” of any good apparel design (Fabric plays major role in fashion designing, 2013, para. 8). According to textile designer and educator Alessandro Pierattini, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of textiles and fabrics to be a good fashion designer. Creativity helps to move the field forward, but it is knowledge of textiles and hands-on experiences that are essential to the fashion student (Banjeree & Alvares, 2020; Lin, 2020). The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of inquiry-based learning (IBL) on students’ understanding of textiles, or “textiles literacy.”

IBL is a versatile pedagogical strategy that promotes student-driven research or inquiry (McKinney, 2014). IBL encompasses approaches such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, field work, and case-based learning (Aditomo et al., 2013; McKinney, 2014). As more higher education institutions seek to integrate 21^st century skills, such as higher-order thinking, problem solving, and teamwork, it is important to integrate these skills into textiles classes through inquiry-based instruction (Shirley & Kohler, 2012). Students who have mastered the pillars of 21^st century skills – learning (e.g., critical thinking, creativity, collaboration), literacy (e.g., information, media, technology), and life (e.g., flexibility, leadership, initiative, productivity, social) – better meet the needs of 21^st century careers (Stauffer, 2020). Information literacy, which is defined as an appropriate process of identifying information through a variety of media that is suited to the informational need, is an integral part of IBL and helps students to identify and manage information within the context of the subject in which it is taught (McKinney, 2014).

Some educators have sought to expand the definition of literacy to include both written and visual text or media. Shivers et al. (2017) worked with museum educators and teachers to include art in literacy instruction. Additional researchers call for a more relational or experiential approach to literacy and find that focusing on traditional literacy competencies can be limiting. A study by Walsh (2015) sought to address higher-level information literacy in higher education through play by examining the nature of games and play in adult learning and literacy. It is important to understand “how people experience finding and using information in their own way and in the context in which they find themselves” (Walsh, 2015, p. 82). The results of these studies suggest that the concept of literacy must be expanded to include a broader perception, such as the language of textiles or “textiles literacy.” The study of basic textiles is standard in fashion and textile programs, and it is important for students to become fluent in textiles literacy to build a foundation for their knowledge.

Literature Review

Pedagogical Strategies in Textiles and Fashion

As documented by Krueger in 1920, it is evident that textiles is a fundamental course that has been taught in colleges for over a century using similar content and methods. It is an essential class within most fashion curricula and yet students increasingly express that they struggle to comprehend the course content (Marcketti et al., 2013). The scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL), the practice of studying teaching strategies and how students learn, has gained increasing importance in the field of textiles and fashion in an effort to improve teaching effectiveness (Bickle et al., 2005; Meyer & Kadolph, 2005). According to Bickle et al. (2005), SoTL uses Boyer's theory in which knowledge is acquired through discovery (investigation), integration (synthesis), application (practice), and teaching. Several scholars have examined teaching and learning strategies in textiles classes, including problem-based learning, team-based learning, and active learning (Farr et al., 2005; Kadolph, 2005); however, little research has been done with regard to textiles using the broader and more flexible learning concept, IBL.

Kadolph (2005) evaluated learning styles and employed techniques such as active learning and team-based learning into a textiles laboratory setting. Active learning approaches include discussion, small group interaction, hands-on work, and short writing assignments that facilitate students’ ability to analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and apply knowledge from the class to real world problems. In active learning, the instructor empowers students and provides them with the tools to learn and work through problems on their own. Team-based learning or group inquiry is a strategy that can help strengthen student learning through improved interpersonal skills, communication, creativity, and better social awareness (McKinney, 2014). Furthermore, when students work in teams, they are encouraged to question, listen to their peers, and think critically, which strengthens understanding of concepts and idea development (Kadolph, 2005). Using focus groups, course evaluations, and instructor observations, Kadolph (2005) found increased interest in the class. Students expressed that they valued the ability to take ownership of their learning and apply their knowledge in the classroom. This process also helped students to seek deeper knowledge and become less reliant on the instructor for guidance and answers to questions. When students work together, they find it easier to generate ideas with greater depth due to the different perspectives and experiences of the group members. These strategies are not just used in textiles, but throughout the fashion curriculum (McKinney, 2014).

Critical thinking, which plays an important role in SoTL, is another 21^st century skill that has been promoted in textile and apparel classrooms. Critical thinking encourages students to explore and systematically evaluate information to draw their own conclusions about an issue or develop solutions to a problem (Fiore et al. 2005). Fiore et al. (2005) developed a process model and taxonomy to help product development students think more critically about textile selection and how these decisions may impact consumers’ perceptions of aesthetics. Saiki and Adomaitis (2017) used constructivist theory to develop a learning activity for students to evaluate apparel quality in a textiles course. Constructivist theory involves student learning through experience and reflection. This process enables students to build upon their knowledge and experiences through related activities or projects that result in deeper learning and a more personalized construction of understanding. According to the Saiki and Adomaitis (2017), constructivist theory is a problem-based learning (PBL) approach where students are asked to solve a problem related to the textiles and apparel field.

To better prepare students for employment, it has become essential to teach 21^st century skills as well as science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) (Abdurrahman et al., 2019; Sergis et al., 2019; Shirley & Kohler, 2012). Shirley and Kohler (2012) argued that STEM is an integral part of the textiles and apparel curriculum. PBL and IBL are important pedagogical strategies for teaching STEM. Besides helping with STEM literacy, Rehmat and Hartley (2020) found that PBL helped students develop 21^st century skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making. Furthermore, multiple studies have found that IBL is a highly effective pedagogical strategy when teaching STEM disciplines (Abdurrahman et al., 2019; Deák et al., 2021; Karppinen et al., 2019; Sergis et al., 2019)

PBL (a form of IBL) is a popular teaching strategy used in textiles and apparel. The use of PBL in textiles courses is not new. In an early study, Hindman (1932) introduced real-world problems involving textile products. Students were given an examination involving textile swatch identification before and after the project to assess student learning. Following the project, students were better able to identify textiles and their appropriate end uses. PBL is a student-centered teaching method that incorporates hands-on experiences to improve knowledge and solve real-world problems (Carpenter & Fairhurst, 2005; Farr et al., 2005; Gam & Banning, 2011). The use of PBL increases student enthusiasm about classroom activities and improves students’ decision-making skills (Farr et al., 2005). Lahti (2012) found PBL to be successful in facilitating critical thinking and problem-solving skills within a beginning sewing class. Farr et al. (2005) employed problem-based learning within a textile evaluation laboratory to improve learning. They found that students exposed to problem-based learning and multimedia instruction had a better experience, were more enthusiastic and engaged in the class, and performed better than students given traditional methods of instruction. Gam and Banning (2011), used PBL in an apparel design course in which they challenged students to design and create sustainable clothing. Students were asked to participate in focus groups following the project to reflect on their experiences. The response to the project was positive and students stated that they would continue to incorporate sustainability in future design work.

Carpenter and Fairhurst (2005) employed PBL in a senior-level merchandising course. Students worked in groups with industry partners to solve real-world problems. Following the project, a survey of both students and industry partners took place. The results showed that the experience was valuable and effective. The project assisted with improving communication, locating resources, solving problems, and presenting findings in a professional atmosphere. This IBL project helped students to build 21^st century skills and provided effective preparation for entering the workforce. These studies emphasize the importance of student involvement in the learning process to improve knowledge retention and understanding of course content. PBL, a sub-category of IBL, has successfully been employed in apparel and textile courses; however, it cannot be applied universally to all types of courses (Marks, 2017). IBL, which encompasses PBL, applied learning, and other concepts, is a more flexible pedagogy where the stimulus for learning is not as prescribed as in PBL (McKinney, 2014).

The IBL Framework: IBL and Applied Learning

IBL includes the following forms: scholarly research, simplified research, literature-based inquiry, discussion-based inquiry, applied research, simulated applied research, enactment of practice, and role playing (Aditomo et al., 2013). Introduction of IBL into the classroom can take one of three forms: structured inquiry (problem is determined by the instructor with guidance on how it should be addressed), guided inquiry (instructor provides the question and student work is more self-guided), or open inquiry (students develop both the question and the solution) (Albers et al., 2017). Successful IBL involves learning through simulated questions or problems, with students taking an active role in their learning, and instructors acting more as a facilitator (Albers et al., 2017; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016).

IBL, like applied learning, is considered authentic learning, and is advocated in higher education (Albers et al., 2017). IBL supports 21^st century skills and helps students with thinking critically, working collaboratively with others, taking responsibility for one's own learning, and presenting information articulately (De Jong & van Joolingen, 1998; Marks, 2017). IBL encourages students to become partners in the education process rather than recipients of education and experience real-world cases and solutions (Marks, 2017; McKinney, 2014). It helps students refine their ability to discover information and relationships and apply problem-solving skills through inquiry (McKinney, 2014). In addition, it is important for students to work together both inside and outside of the classroom (Albers et al., 2017). Through the process of IBL, students learn how to investigate, explore, question, debate, reason, imagine, tinker, experiment, hypothesize, brainstorm, prototype, create, evaluate, and present (Marks, 2017). IBL, like PBL, incorporates constructivist theory, which requires students to reflect on their experiences throughout their inquiry process (Pedaste et al., 2015; Rehmat & Hartley, 2020; Saiki and Adomaitis, 2017).

IBL is already being used extensively in K-12 and is highly advocated in higher education (Aditomo et al., 2013). Several disciplines have already been evaluating the use of IBL in higher education, particularly those in the STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) fields which value processes of scientific inquiry (Cooper et al., 2017; Davis, 2018; Ernst et al., 2017; Kinsey & Moore, 2015; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). IBL has been successfully implemented in higher education including introductory-level college courses (Davis, 2018). Albers et al. (2017) found that by using IBL, university students were able to take ownership over their learning process.

It is important to expand the use and evaluation of IBL in the fashion and textiles curriculum. Several studies have refined guidance on how to provide structure for student learning processes and activity implementation while maintaining the flexibility to accommodate student-led inquiry. McKinney (2014) provided a model for the modes of IBL: authoring, producing, pursuing, and identifying. These modes are selected based on the level of information exploration (gaining new knowledge vs. expanding depth of existing knowledge) and origin of inquiry (student-directed vs. instructor- or industry-directed). The framework for this study was based on the five phases of IBL as proposed by Pedaste et al. (2015): orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion, and discussion. These phases provide structure and guidance for students when working through the inquiry process. In addition, applied learning principles such as offering structured, intentional, and authentic learning strategies, were incorporated in the strategic design of the IBL activity. IBL has the potential to help students with the comprehension and application of knowledge about textiles or textiles literacy. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of IBL on students’ comprehension of textiles or “textiles literacy” in a basic textiles course.

Project Design

The IBL project titled “Textiles Literacy” was developed to promote understanding and application of knowledge over memorization to address 21^st century skills in a basic textiles course. Without textiles literacy (an understanding of physical and visual properties of textiles), students often try to “memorize” fabrics from their textile swatch kits and have difficulty recognizing and identifying comparable fabric samples. Through group-led inquiry, students learned about textiles by applying creativity, critical thinking, literacy, communication, and teamwork skills. The project was designed to facilitate the phases of IBL as students worked to create a touch-and-feel storybook and supplementary teaching materials (e.g., fabric sample guide/swatch kit, learning activity, discussion questions, and information resources) (see Table 1). The act of making is considered an effective IBL strategy (Hébert & Jenson, 2020; Karppinen et al., 2019). Most students enrolled in the class do not have previous experience with fashion illustrations or garment construction, which are traditional forms of applying textiles knowledge; therefore, the storybook allowed students to be creative while reinforcing textiles literacy. The outcomes of previous studies indicate that learning by teaching is an effective pedagogical strategy (Duran, 2017; Fiorella & Kuhlmann, 2020) and contributes toward literacy (Davari Torshizi & Bahraman, 2019); therefore, students were expected to generate teaching materials targeting elementary students to accompany their storybook. Students in the course completed journal reflections following each IBL phase. These reflections support a constructivist approach where students build on their knowledge through reflection (Saiki & Adomaitis, 2017).

Table 1.
Application of IBL to the Textiles Literacy Project.

IBL Phase Orientation Conceptualization Investigation Conclusion Discussion

Definition Evoking curiosity and enthusiasm for the project Generating problem statements, strategies, or ideas Involves information gathering and exploration of ideas and concepts Synthesizing the outcomes of the inquiry Communicating outcomes to others and reflecting on completed work

Project Students were introduced to the project and the concept of IBL. They engaged in class activities designed to feel like play which has been found to support adult literacy (Walsh, 2015). Groups were provided with structured class time to work on objectives, story creation, and examine fabric swatches available for the project. Groups developed an outline of their story and supplementary materials. They met with the instructor to discuss feedback on the progress of their project. Groups submitted the completed storybook and supplementary materials. Groups presented their book and supplementary materials to the class.

Orientation Phase

The orientation phase, which was intended to evoke curiosity and enthusiasm for the project, involved an introduction to the project and the concept of IBL. As part of the introduction, students engaged in class activities designed to feel like play. Using games and play have been found to support adult literacy (Walsh, 2015). Working in groups, students completed mad-libs exercises designed to help students think creatively and practice story development (see Figure 1). Interdisciplinary IBL can be an effective pedagogical strategy; therefore, the story writing exercise was necessary to instruct students on creative writing, which is not a typical objective of a textiles course (Karppinen et al., 2019). To better prepare students for applying textiles literacy, students received fabric samples to practice fabric identification, examine fabric properties, and discuss appropriate end use. Following the in-class introduction, students were asked to complete a reflection on their perception and enthusiasm for the project as well as express any questions or concerns. This provided the instructor the opportunity to provide feedback and clarification and address any concerns prior to the start of the project.

Figure 1.
Example of a mad-libs activity conducted during the orientation phase.

Conceptualization Phase

The conceptualization phase, in which problem statements, strategies, or ideas were generated, involved providing students with structured class time to work on objectives, create a story, and examine fabric swatches available for the project. Students worked in instructor-assigned groups. In the early stages of planning, groups completed a group contract which outlined methods and frequency of communication that would be used by group members during the project, the roles and responsibilities (including leadership) of each group member throughout the project, and a discussion of strategies for how students would meet deadlines. During this stage, the instructor provided support and feedback and the students were responsible for story development, textile identification, and planning. Students wrote a reflection during this phase describing their ideation process and preliminary impressions of the project as well as group dynamics.

Investigation Phase

The investigation phase, which involved information gathering and exploration of ideas and concepts, required students to develop and submit an outline of their story and supplementary materials (e.g., fabric sample guide, learning activity, discussion questions, and information resources). During this phase, each group was expected to provide basic fabric identification for the 10 different fabrics included within the touch-and-feel storybook (see Figure 2). The instructor provided constructive comments on the story outline and other submission materials including an assessment of fabric choices and the accuracy of fabric identification. The students met with the instructor to discuss the feedback and the progress of their project. Students had the opportunity to reflect on the meeting with the instructor, discuss their perceptions of the project at this stage, and raise any concerns or questions that they had about the project or their team members.

Figure 2.
Template for the fabric sample guide.

Conclusion Phase

In the conclusion phase, which involved synthesizing the outcomes of the inquiry, students submitted the completed storybook and supplementary materials (see Figure 3). The students were expected to go beyond the creation of the book and provide information that was educational including the completed fabric sample guide, a learning activity that supported knowledge about textiles (e.g., a game or show and tell), five learning-oriented discussion questions a teacher could ask the students to support critical thinking about the textiles in the book, and three online resources that could be used by the teacher (e.g., videos, visual media, or educational websites). The expectation was that the process of developing educational materials, or learning by teaching, would contribute toward students’ textiles literacy (Davari Torshizi & Bahraman, 2019). Students reflected on the process of completing the book, their preparation for the forthcoming presentation, and any questions or comments they had at the conclusion of this phase.

Figure 3.
A sample touch-and-feel storybook.

Discussion Phase

For the discussion phase, which focused on communicating and reflecting on their work, students presented their book and supplementary materials to the class. Students had the opportunity to execute and discuss their materials with their peers. At the conclusion of the project, students responded to five open-ended questions about their project experience. The questions were developed based on the objectives of the IBL project and adapted from Gam and Banning (2011). The objectives of the project were generated to evaluate the use of IBL: (1) to promote an understanding of textiles through the application of knowledge; (2) to reinforce the role of textiles within the fashion program/industry; (3) to facilitate engagement in the learning process; (4) to enhance skills and knowledge (21^st century skills); and (5) to foster future interest in learning about and using textiles. This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board for the college.

Methods

The textiles class consisted of 26 members, 18 (70%) of whom volunteered to participate in this research. With the qualitative, exploratory nature of this study, 18 participants were deemed a sufficient number. Questionnaire responses were analyzed to identify themes and preliminary data-driven codes resulting in a codebook containing 43 codes (Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011). The coding process followed an established procedure: separate the text into meaningful units; create a codebook; calculate interrater reliability using a small portion of the data; discuss discrepancies among raters and adjust the codebook; and code the entire data set (Campbell et al., 2013; Hruschka et al., 2004). For data-driven codes, it is customary to break down the raw data into units of text such as a group of words, sentence, or paragraph that represents an idea or theme (Campbell et al., 2013; Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011; Saldana, 2009). Each unit of text was assigned a code. Unitization of the text is important when using multiple raters to establish consistency and improve interrater reliability (Campbell et al., 2013). Next, primary themes and sub-themes were identified and compared across the data to develop codes (Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011). Most qualitative coding results in 5–7 concepts or themes (Saldana, 2009). This study resulted in five primary themes (see Table 2).

Table 2.
Themes and Codes.

Primary Theme Impact on Understanding Textiles Role of Textiles in Fashion Attitude Skills and Knowledge Likelihood to Seek Further Knowledge

Sub Themes
Codes
Experience
Fun way to learn

Improved classroom engagement

Understand textiles
Fiber/construction/ fabric identification

How textiles are made

Apply knowledge
Used in everyday life

Future career

Further research

Teacher perspective

Neutral/Negative Impact
Bad group experience

Disliked topic
Acknowledgement of importance
Recognition of importance

Knowledge gained

Fabric experience
Fabric exposure

Relationship to clothing

Tactile learning

Role in classes/ major/career
Future classes

Application to major

Use in other fields
Positive
Perceived enjoyment

Engagement/hands-on

Creativity

Negative
Bad group experience

Grade/class motivation

Lack of learning

Required clarity

Transforming
Positive to negative

Negative to positive
Textiles knowledge
Fiber & fabric identification

Textile use
Teamwork
Working with as a team

Communication & leadership

Application
Hands-on experience

Technology use

Create unique story
Likely
Learn more about textiles

Apply to apparel design

New textile developments

Enjoyed hands-on

Sustainability

Future coursework

Unlikely
Only if required

Negative project experience

Neutral
No impact

A codebook was developed to provide definitions and examples of codes to assist with reviewing the data (Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011). Two independent raters assisted the primary researcher with data coding. It is appropriate to train coders, such as research assistants, to help code the data (Campbell et al., 2013; Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011). Using multiple raters helps to improve objectivity and enables the calculation of interrater reliability (Flick, 2014). Establishing interrater reliability, which assesses the consistency in applying codes among multiple raters, can help reduce bias in qualitative data analysis (Hruschka et al., 2004; Marques & McCall, 2005). For exploratory and qualitative studies, researchers recommend the proportion or percentage method for calculating interrater reliability: interrater reliability = (number of agreements)/(number of agreements + disagreements) × 100 (Campbell et al., 2013; Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011; Marques & McCall, 2005; Saiki & Adomaitis, 2017).

Initial interrater reliability is often conducted on a small portion of the qualitative data due to the volume of data, which is time consuming to code (Marques & McCall, 2005). Researchers suggest that coding approximately 10–20% of the data is sufficient for conducting and evaluating interrater reliability (Campbell et al., 2013; Hruschka et al., 2004). For this study, raters reviewed 15% of the responses resulting in 81.7% interrater reliability. Researchers suggest an appropriate range is from 70% (acceptable) to 94% (exceptional) with higher levels of 85–90% being encouraged (Campbell et al., 2013; Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011; Saldana, 2009).

Following initial interrater reliability calculations, it is important for reviewers to discuss the codes to improve consistency until adequate reliability is established (Campbell et al., 2013; Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011; Hruschka et al., 2004). The coders negotiated coding discrepancies and adjusted the codebook for clarity and consistency. Once universal agreement was achieved, the remaining data were coded. Hruschka et al. (2004) recommend conducting interrater reliability again after the entire data are analyzed. Final coding resulted in 91.2% interrater reliability for the total data, which meets the criteria for consistency in coding (Decuir-Gunby et al., 2011; Saldana, 2009).

Outcomes

Impact on Understanding Textiles

The resulting five thematic categories aligned with the objectives of the project and consisted of 3–4 sub themes each. The first category, impact on understanding textiles, had four sub-themes: “experience,” “understand textiles,” “apply knowledge,” and “neutral/negative impact.” Regarding the sub-theme “experience,” students most frequently stated that the project kept them engaged in the classroom and indicated that they enjoyed the project. This is similar to the findings of Farr et al. (2005). Students most frequently mentioned the sub-theme “understand textiles” in that the project helped them gain content-specific knowledge (e.g. fiber/construction/fabric identification). One student stated, “assembling the fabric sample guide especially has helped me identify different types of textiles, which can be very useful in the future.” The “apply knowledge” sub-theme included statements on the ability to apply textile knowledge to everyday life, future careers, and facilitate research on textiles. Students also expressed that by creating teaching materials, they were encouraged to better understand textiles and apply their knowledge, which suggests that learning by teaching is a good pedagogical tool. Furthermore, these outcomes indicate that IBL helps with comprehension of content (Marcketti et al., 2013; Shirley & Kohler, 2012). The fourth sub-theme, “neutral/negative impact,” consisted of responses that primarily focused on apprehension about working in a group or the realization that the fashion and textiles major was not the best fit.

Role of Textiles in Fashion

The second category, role of textiles in fashion, focused on the following three sub-themes: “acknowledgement of importance,” “experience with fabrics,” and the “role in classes/major/career.” For the sub-theme “acknowledgement of importance,” students often referenced the amount and types of knowledge gained in addition to a recognition for the importance of building a foundational knowledge of textiles. This supports recommendations on textiles knowledge by current fashion and textiles professionals (Fabric plays major role in fashion designing, 2013; Lin, 2020). One student expressed her acknowledgement in the following statement, “This project has made me realize that textiles play a role in every aspect of fashion and my major.” The sub-theme “fabric experience” included expressions on the importance of exposure to a variety of different fabrics, understanding their relationship to clothing, and the value of learning through hands-on tactile exercises. The third sub-theme, “role in classes/major/career,” addressed the importance of textiles in future courses, within the major or field of study, and their value in a broader context outside of fashion and textiles classes or the major. A large portion of respondents included statements about how the project helped them to better appreciate the importance of textiles as they moved forward within their major.

Attitude

The third category, attitude, was sorted into three sub-themes: “positive,” “negative,” and “transforming.” Overall, students expressed a “positive” attitude about the project due to the hands-on and creative nature of the project. Many students indicated that the project was fun, and it made learning about textiles enjoyable. Nearly all students mentioned the benefits of hands-on learning and how this made them more engaged in the class, both during the project as well as during regular class lectures and activities. This reinforces the importance of incorporating hands-on learning into pedagogical strategies (Banjeree & Alvares, 2020; Gam & Banning, 2011; Kadolph, 2005; Lin, 2020). Students also appreciated that the project encouraged creativity while learning about textiles. One student described her/his experience as follows:
My attitude towards the project was very positive. I enjoyed creating a children's story and picking out the different fabrics to incorporate into the book. This expanded my mind for creativity and helped me understand textiles more.

Most “negative” responses consisted of students with lower enthusiasm who were primarily motivated by grades. Additional “negative” responses related to a poor group experience or a lack of understanding about the project requirements. Several students experienced a “transformation” during the project (e.g., began with apprehension but came to enjoy the project). Most of these responses described experiences that transformed from negative to positive. Before beginning the project, students stated that they were nervous because of previous bad experiences working in a group or anxious about the requirements of the project; however, during the project students became engaged and motivated to learn about textiles. A couple of students expressed a transformation from positive to negative due to a negative experience with a group member(s).

Skills and Knowledge

The fourth category, skills and knowledge, resulted in the themes of “textiles knowledge,” “teamwork,” and “application.” Students overwhelmingly cited that they gained “textiles knowledge” in the form of fiber and fabric identification during the project. In addition, they felt more confident in identifying appropriate uses for textiles. Students also mentioned that “teamwork” or working in a group helped them to hone skills of communication, leadership, and working with others, which supports previous literature (McKinney, 2014). One student described the skills she/he developed, “is learning to work with others as a team and getting our own opinion on the project.” Students also referred to the sub-theme of “application,” which highlighted the value of hands-on experiences, use of technology, and creativity in learning about textiles. This supports findings from previous studies regarding the importance of applied learning (Gam & Banning, 2011; Shirley & Kohler, 2012)

Likelihood to Seek Further Knowledge

The fifth category, likelihood to seek further knowledge, was sorted into the sub-themes “likely,” “unlikely,” and “neutral.” Most students expressed that they were “likely” and/or excited to learn more about textiles and their application in the future. Some students indicated that they would seek more information about textiles on their own while others looked forward to learning more about textiles as they continued with the coursework in their major. The role of fabrics in apparel design was another reason given for the continued study of textiles. The tactile nature of textiles instilled desire in several students to continue learning about and experimenting with fibers and fabrics. Students also mentioned specific areas of interest in textiles that they planned to pursue, such as sustainability and new textiles developments. Students who were “unlikely” to seek further knowledge cited a bad group experience or a realization that they were in the wrong major. A few students made “neutral” responses indicating that the project itself did not change their likelihood to further interact with textiles; they had entered the course with the expectation of continuing their education on textiles beyond the introductory textiles course.

Conclusions

Textiles is a foundational course within the fashion curriculum, but comprehension of the course content continues to be an issue among students (Marcketti et al., 2013). The concept of textiles literacy suggests that students enrolled in a textiles class should gain competency and a multi-dimensional understanding of textiles in written, visual, and tactile form. IBL is a pedagogical strategy that provides students guidance that is both structured and flexible, which facilitates deep learning of course content. The application of IBL in the introductory textiles course helped to improve engagement, understanding, and enthusiasm in the course. Students frequently mentioned that the project helped them to apply the knowledge they learned in class and increased their interest in lectures and class activities outside of the project. Students expressed that the project exposed them to a greater variety of fabrics, helped them to better understand the role of textiles within their major, and aided them in better recognizing the importance of gaining experience with textiles. The hands-on nature of the project resulted in a positive attitude toward learning about textiles. Furthermore, the team-based approach helped students develop important interpersonal and communication skills. Students expressed an interest in continuing to learn about textiles in the future.

SoTL has become increasingly recognized as an appropriate method for assessing teaching effectiveness (Meyer & Kadolph, 2005). The outcomes of this teaching and learning scholarship reinforces the value of using IBL to integrate 21^st century skills into the classroom (Shirley & Kohler, 2012). Overall, the IBL Textiles Literacy project had a positive impact on student appreciation, and attitude toward learning about textiles. Students frequently mentioned how the project helped improve their knowledge and engagement in the learning process. For this assignment, a storybook was chosen as an equitable means to reinforce textiles literacy because it did not require students to have previous experience with creating fashion illustrations/flats or garment construction, which are traditional forms of applying textiles knowledge. Also, students were required to develop teaching materials to accompany the storybook, which required a deeper knowledge of the fabrics.

Implication for Educators

The concept of literacy is being expanded (Shivers et al., 2017; Walsh, 2015). With concepts such as STEM literacy (Rehmat & Hartley 2020), technological literacy (Hébert & Jenson, 2020), information literacy (McKinney, 2014; Walsh, 2015), which address a tactile and visual understanding of textiles, it is important to recognize textiles literacy. The pedagogical strategies used in this class could be applied to other courses within the fashion curriculum that require visual and tactile understanding in addition to reading comprehension (e.g., fashion illustration). Many fashion scholars have examined PBL in the fashion classroom (Carpenter & Fairhurst, 2005; Farr et al., 2005; Gam & Banning, 2011; Lahti, 2012; Saiki and Adomaitis, 2017); however, IBL as a pedagogical strategy can help students apply their knowledge in a variety of ways and is not restricted to problem-based assignments (Marks, 2017; McKinney, 2014). IBL could provide similar guidance for alternative course designs regarding textiles literacy including field work, case studies, applied research, and role playing (Aditomo et al., 2013; McKinney, 2014). Since textiles is recognized as a STEM discipline, the effectiveness of IBL demonstrated in this study further supports the use of IBL as a pedagogical strategy in other STEM courses and disciplines (Abdurrahman et al., 2019; Deák et al., 2021; Sergis et al., 2019).

Future Research

More research is needed to explore the potential benefits of implementing IBL in apparel and textiles courses. Future research could include additional metrics for measuring textile knowledge and address some of the challenges students mentioned related to the IBL project. To address concerns related to poor group experiences, future IBL projects should incorporate more activities during the orientation phase to help provide guidance and tools to assist with working in a team, as well as additional support for groups throughout. Furthermore, the collaborative nature of the project developed for this course could be expanded to include cross-disciplinary (e.g., elementary education majors) or service-learning activities (e.g., working with local primary schools). Based on the data generated from this study, it is confirmed that IBL is a successful pedagogy for enhancing student's mastery of textiles literacy. Future studies should expand on the versatile capabilities of the IBL framework throughout the fashion curriculum reflecting an authentic and relevant instructional environment.

IBL Phase	Orientation	Conceptualization	Investigation	Conclusion	Discussion
Definition	Evoking curiosity and enthusiasm for the project	Generating problem statements, strategies, or ideas	Involves information gathering and exploration of ideas and concepts	Synthesizing the outcomes of the inquiry	Communicating outcomes to others and reflecting on completed work
Project	Students were introduced to the project and the concept of IBL. They engaged in class activities designed to feel like play which has been found to support adult literacy (Walsh, 2015).	Groups were provided with structured class time to work on objectives, story creation, and examine fabric swatches available for the project.	Groups developed an outline of their story and supplementary materials. They met with the instructor to discuss feedback on the progress of their project.	Groups submitted the completed storybook and supplementary materials.	Groups presented their book and supplementary materials to the class.

Primary Theme	Impact on Understanding Textiles	Role of Textiles in Fashion	Attitude	Skills and Knowledge	Likelihood to Seek Further Knowledge
Sub Themes Codes	Experience Fun way to learn Improved classroom engagement Understand textiles Fiber/construction/ fabric identification How textiles are made Apply knowledge Used in everyday life Future career Further research Teacher perspective Neutral/Negative Impact Bad group experience Disliked topic	Acknowledgement of importance Recognition of importance Knowledge gained Fabric experience Fabric exposure Relationship to clothing Tactile learning Role in classes/ major/career Future classes Application to major Use in other fields	Positive Perceived enjoyment Engagement/hands-on Creativity Negative Bad group experience Grade/class motivation Lack of learning Required clarity Transforming Positive to negative Negative to positive	Textiles knowledge Fiber & fabric identification Textile use Teamwork Working with as a team Communication & leadership Application Hands-on experience Technology use Create unique story	Likely Learn more about textiles Apply to apparel design New textile developments Enjoyed hands-on Sustainability Future coursework Unlikely Only if required Negative project experience Neutral No impact

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biography

Arlesa Shephard is an Associate Professor and Curator in the Fashion and Textile Technology Department at the State University of New York College at Buffalo. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri. Her research expertise includes sustainability, scholarship of teaching and learning, consumer behavior, and history of dress.

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