Natural Dyes in the United States: An Exploration of Natural Dye Use Through the Lens of the Circuit of Style-Fashion-Dress

Before the latter half of the 19th century, natural dyes were the only source of color for textiles. Over the past 160 years, manufacturers, consumer preferences, and regulatory forces have made synthetic dyes the norm. Recently, increased interest in sustainability has inspired both consumers and manufacturers/designers to readopt natural dyes because they are renewable, biodegradable (Fletcher & Grose, 2012), and reduce the fashion industry's chemical impact on waterways and soil (Bechtold et al., 2003; Chan et al., 2002). Large fashion brands such as Nike, Eileen Fisher, Allbirds, Toms, Reebok, Quiksilver, Mara Hoffman, Chipotle Goods, MUD jeans, and Patagonia have released small, limited runs of garments and shoes dyed with naturally derived colorants (DuFault, 2017; Farra, 2020; Keh, 2021; Laughlin, 2017; Leighton, 2018; Nike, n.d.; Schneider-Levy, 2018; Toms, n.d.). Research shows that consumers perceive natural dyes as more sustainable than synthetic colorants; however, they are concerned about colorfastness and affordability (Kamboj & Mahajan, 2017; Mabuza et al., 2023).

Natural dye use in global apparel production is a complex subject when it comes to sustainability, which is defined as “systems and processes that are able to operate and persist on their own over long periods of time” (Robertson, 2017, p. 3). Experts have raised questions about the sustainability of natural dyes regarding dyestuff production, wet processing steps, color consistency and fastness, effluent water, and scalability (Bechtold et al., 2003; Doty et al., 2016; Fletcher & Grose, 2012; Haar et al., 2021). More research on natural dye use is needed before brands can make sustainability claims with confidence. Research and development of natural dye processes have lagged significantly since the advent of synthetic colorants.

Natural dyes do remain a renewable alternative to synthetics, and it is therefore critical to explore the challenges experienced and innovations made by fashion companies in the United States. Overall, the United States is an enormous consumer of apparel and textile products. According to the International Trade Administration (2023), the United States imported approximately $132 billion in apparel and textile goods while only exporting approximately $24 billion in the same sector in 2022. Apparel and textile manufacturing has decreased significantly since the 1970s due to globalization, deregulation, trade policies, labor costs, technologies, and consumer preferences (Park & Kincade, 2011). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2023), employment in apparel manufacturing fell from around 930,000 jobs in 1990 to 94,000 jobs in 2023. Employment at textile mills fell from 503,000 in 1990 to 96,000 jobs in 2023. However, organizations such as Fibershed are reprioritizing local and sustainable fashion in the United States, while also promoting the use of natural dyes for textiles (Burgess & White, 2019). Fibershed is a sustainability-focused nonprofit organization from California that assists in developing regional and regenerative fiber systems on behalf of producers. A regional fibershed connects different fashion supply segments in a specific area to produce and sell locally made yarn or garments. In this research project, we explore a relatively small but important world of contemporary natural dye use in the United States through Kaiser and Green's (2021) circuit of style-fashion-dress, which considers the entanglements of consumers, producers, regulators, distribution networks, and intersecting subjectivities.

Purpose

The purpose of this research is to explore the challenges and innovations that surround the use of natural dyes through the theoretical lens of the circuit of style-fashion-dress (CSFD; Kaiser & Green, 2021). The CSFD model is used to interpret qualitative data gathered in this study and to examine the production, distribution, consumption, regulation, and intersecting subject formation(s) associated with natural dyes (Kaiser & Green, 2021). We concentrated on fashion and textile production in the United States because of consumer market size and potential for expanding localized production of apparel and textile goods. This study will contribute to a currently underresearched area—that is, natural dyes in the U.S. textile and apparel manufacturing setting. In this article, we broadly review natural dye production in the United States and offer a snapshot of this complex industry. We also explore challenges and innovations in the natural dye space and provide information for those interested in their use for apparel production.

Literature Review

Natural Dyes

In the field of apparel manufacturing, there are two broad categories of dyes: natural and synthetic. Synthetic dyes are petroleum-based, nonrenewable, and are not biodegradable. On the other hand, natural dyes come from renewable and biodegradable sources like plants, animals, minerals, and fungi. In manufacturing, synthetic dyes have become a reliable source of inexpensive, consistent, and high-performing color (Gregory, 2007). The dyeing process (natural or synthetic) can happen at the fiber, yarn, fabric, or garment stage of production. Scientists and environmentalists have criticized synthetic dyes and manufacturers for contributing to water and soil pollution (Brigden et al., 2012; Gregory, 2007). These critiques have resulted in increased interest in natural dyes for an array of uses that include food coloring (Downham & Collins, 2000), beauty products (Daniel et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2015), pharmaceuticals (Chigurupati et al., 2002), and textile dyeing (Bechtold et al., 2003; Doty et al., 2016).

One challenge that faces the widespread adoption of natural dyes is color consistency between dye batches. Depending on the dye source, the colorant compounds (i.e., quinones, benzoquinones, anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, flavonoids, and indican) vary widely and in varying amounts, depending on the conditions in which the dyestuff grew (Boutrup & Ellis, 2018). Pretreating fabric with a metallic salt, known as a mordant, is often required to fix most natural dyes’ organic compounds to a textile. This process means that more water may be required to successfully dye with natural compounds. However, a mordant may not always be necessary due to naturally occurring chemical compounds, such as tannic acid, which improve dye absorption and colorfastness (Doty et al., 2016). Mordanting may occur before dyeing (premordanting), throughout the dyeing process (simultaneous mordanting), or after the dyeing process (postmordanting; Boutrup & Ellis, 2018). Artisans most commonly use premordanting to allow for the greatest flexibility when it comes to surface design choices, but again, this step increases water use. To reduce water consumption and increase efficiencies, simultaneous mordanting has been explored with mixed colorfastness results (Bechtold et al., 2003). The challenge of simultaneous mordanting is the possible formation of insoluble compounds between mordant and dye molecules prior to fiber penetration that negatively impacts dye absorption and fastness (Boutrup & Ellis, 2018).

Another potential barrier to the widespread adoption of natural dyes is fiber limitation as these dyes work best on natural protein (e.g., wool and silk) and cellulosic fibers (e.g., cotton and linen; Bechtold & Mussak, 2009; Boutrup & Ellis, 2018). Natural dyes are ineffective on some synthetic fibers, such as polyester and spandex. Nylon, a manmade fiber considered silk's twin polymer, is the exception (Green, 2018). On the other hand, this limitation could reduce future consumption of nonbiodegradable, petroleum-based synthetics like polyester, which are significantly less durable than nylon and chemically bond to bad odors because they are oleophilic.

Despite the processing challenges, natural dyes are regenerable and biodegradable, and when properly neutralized, meet disposal regulations (Bechtold et al., 2003; Haar et al., 2021; Saha & Haar, 2020). The toxicity and nonbiodegradability of many synthetic dyes are why companies such as Nike and Patagonia have developed naturally dyed products (Nike, n.d.; Patagonia, n.d.).

Circular Fashion Systems

The fashion industry is highly complex and one of the most pollution-intensive systems in the world (Boström & Micheletti, 2016; Curwen et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2017). For the most part, the fashion supply chain is a linear cradle-to-grave system that begins with fiber production and ends with the eventual disposal of a garment into a landfill (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013). Sustainability researchers and activists champion the idea of circuitous systems, such as McDonough and Braungart's (2013) concept of cradle-to-cradle, where materials are designed to become nutrients for the next cycle of materials and upcycled rather than downcycled. Fibershed proposed a model more specific to the fashion industry, “Soil to Soil” where “natural fiber textiles that come from regenerating soils can and must be returned to the soil” (Burgess & White, 2019, p. 107). Locally sourced natural dyes, when applied to natural fibers, are a possible biodegradable alternative that fits the Soil to Soil system, unlike synthetic dyes which do not break down easily (Burgess & White, 2019; Carneiro et al., 2010).

Circuit of Style-Fashion-Dress

To analyze, interpret, and organize our study, we used the CSFD model by Kaiser and Green (2021). The CSFD was developed from du Gay’s (1997) Circuit of Culture and Tulloch's (2010) theory of style-fashion-dress to interpret the global flow of fashions and ideas. Globalized, transnational fashion production is more of a messy, knotted web than a supply chain, and thus the inclusion of production, distribution, consumption, regulation, and subject formation within a circuit, rather than a linear path, denotes the multiple complex route ideas, materials, and bodies can travel (Kaiser & Green, 2021). The circuit is further complicated by structures of feeling, such as anxiety and ambivalence, which occur at individual and societal levels. These feelings articulate power asymmetries, ambiguities, and other forces that shape the flows of style-fashion-dress. Structures of feeling “capture the idea that affect (the emotional realm) connects the personal with the cultural in everyday life” (Kaiser & Green, 2021, p. 39).

According to Kaiser and Green (2021), the working definition for each delineation (production, distribution, consumption, regulation, and subject formation) along the circuit impacts and is impacted by the others. Production refers to the ideas of making and doing and is meant to conceptualize the production of apparel, ideas, or cultural practices. Production articulates with distribution, which refers to the movement of materials (e.g., natural dyestuff, mordants, naturally dyed garments) from the production phases until the point of sale to consumers. Distribution can also be the representational distribution process of symbolizing, branding, and meaning-making between producers and consumers. Consumption occurs in the manufacturing process, but also once goods reach individuals who then use the garment or accessory to fashion appearances in daily life. Regulation may refer to the formal and informal regulation of identities through appearance but also may refer to policies and restrictions placed on companies producing and distributing goods. The subject formation is the act of being or becoming in the world and is an iterative identity development process that is intersectional. Overlapping, articulating, and entangled within the circuit are the structures of feeling, which characterize the conflicting emotions and open possibilities, such as ambiguity (mixed messages), which can produce anxieties and ambivalences (mixed emotions), that can perpetuate the illusion of a linear supply chain, but contribute to the messiness of the nonlinearity of the fashion system.

Method

To document the complex use of natural dyes in U.S. textile and apparel production, we integrated various qualitative collection methods (e.g., interviews, participant observation, field notes and sketches, documentary filmmaking, and surveys) over approximately two and a half years, from November 2016 to June 2019. We then organized and analyzed our numerous points of data using the CSFD model to examine how production, distribution, consumption, regulation, and subject formation(s) are associated with natural dyes (Kaiser & Green, 2021). The following sections will describe how data was collected and our analysis of the research information.

Data Collection

The combination of multiple qualitative methods was required to study a relatively nascent industry. Because natural dyes are not yet widely adopted in apparel production in the United States, the sites and types of production are diverse and dispersed, entangled in complex ways with the CSFD. After gaining approval from the Institutional Review Board, the lead author conducted in-depth interviews and participant observations with 15 individuals over two and a half years (November 2016–July 2019) with people who work with natural dyes in the United States, including interviews with apparel and textile designers, natural dye growers, production dyers, and apparel companies who sold naturally dyed garments. Open-ended interview questions were crafted to better understand participants’ challenges and innovations surrounding the use of natural dyes and their perceptions of the environmental effects of natural dyes, with interviews lasting approximately 45 to 90 min. Some participants were filmed for data analysis and later used in a documentary film (Doty et al., 2020). Since interviews were recorded for a documentary film, and names and company identities could not be obscured, many participants did not feel comfortable giving more detailed demographic information about themselves or their companies (e.g., age, gender identity, and company size).

Fieldwork took place in 12 different locations where natural dyes were being used in the fashion industry across the United States within the following cities: New York, NY; Gap, PA; Springfield, TN; Portland, OR; San Francisco, CA; Los Angeles, CA; and San Clementi, CA. Participant observation research meant that the lead author assisted participants with their work to develop rapport and gain a more nuanced understanding of processes and pitfalls. Out of this research, approximately 130 h of film and more than 700 photos were captured.

In addition to the interviews and fieldwork mentioned above, all three authors collaborated on a research project with Wool&Prince, a menswear company based in Portland, Oregon, during the summer of 2017. To better understand consumer preferences and the challenges of putting natural dyes into production practice, the authors dyed 80 wool blend t-shirts in four different natural colorants. After dyeing, Wool&Prince sold the t-shirts through their online website from October 8th, 2017 through December 31st, 2017 for $68, and included a description of the study alongside the naturally dyed product. The authors sent e-mails to individuals who purchased a naturally dyed t-shirt and solicited their participation in two online surveys. The first survey finished with a sample size of 24 participants (21 male and three female). Questions focused on demographics, online purchasing behavior, perceptions of natural dyes, initial satisfaction with the product, and future intentions to purchase another naturally dyed t-shirt from Wool&Prince. Four months later we sent a follow-up survey to participants who had completed the first survey and finished with a sample size of 18 participants (14 male, two female, two nonreporting). For the second survey, we evaluated their satisfaction with the garment and color over time, their laundering practices, any perceived changes in color to the garment, comments they had received about their shirt, and again asked if they would purchase another naturally dyed t-shirt from Wool&Prince. For both surveys, questions were open-ended.

Analysis

We used NVivo ¹ software for all analytics. For first-round coding, the first author used an in vivo approach outlined by Saldaña (2015), where the participants’ own words are used as a code. In vivo is useful when researching members of a particular culture or subculture, particularly when they have unique vocabulary or terminology (Saldaña, 2015). In vivo uses raw data to generate themes and concepts and is sometimes also known as inductive coding (Saldaña, 2015). In first-round coding, the first author also wrote analytical memos that guided the synthesis of broader categories for the second round of coding.

For second-round coding, the first and second authors agreed to use production, distribution, consumption, regulation, and subject formation themes as described in the CSFD theoretical model to help sort and organize the in vivo coded data (Kaiser & Green, 2021). Due to the exploratory and qualitative nature of this part of our study, the lead author validated their findings through regular discussions with the second author. According to Saldaña (2015), coding solo can be a valid form of analysis but suggests researchers “shop-talk with a colleague or mentor about your coding and analysis as you progress” (p. 37). The first and second authors of this article frequently discussed emerging themes, coding, and findings throughout the analysis phase of this research project.

To increase our study's validity, we also used rich and thick descriptions for the results (Creswell, 2014; Geertz, 1973). A thick description, according to Creswell (2014), “may transport the readers to the setting and give the discussion an element of shared experiences” (p. 202). These descriptions include details of many perspectives around a theme that emerges from firsthand, experiential fieldwork, and fieldnotes (Creswell, 2014). Due to the sample size of survey data from Wool&Prince participants, we focused on the descriptive statistics and qualitative comments written by the individuals who completed the survey.

Results and Discussion

Production: Growing Pains in Production and Scalability

Fashion labels have developed ways to produce more naturally dyed garments at one time to decrease production costs. This increase in production has led to an increasing number of dedicated natural dye houses and large-scale natural dye growing operations in the United States. In the following, we describe some of the current challenges and innovations related to scalability.

Textiles

Wool&Prince primarily produces men's wool and wool blend t-shirts, button-up shirts, pants, and accessories. Due to the fibers’ structure, which is a series of overlapping scales, wool has an excellent affinity for natural dyes (Boutrup & Ellis, 2018). This made a collaboration with Wool&Prince an exciting prospect for a small line of naturally dyed garments. ²

We dyed t-shirts in four different natural dyes (chestnut, myrobalan, madder, and organic indigo), using a Global Organic Textile Standard certified mordant and dye mixture created for volume dyeing in a mass manufacturing setting. For the indigo, we used dyestuff from Botanical Colors in a fructose sugar vat. A challenge we discovered was that the top-stitching thread—likely made of polyester—remained white while the rest of the shirt developed a rich heathered color from the dye absorbing differently to the 78% wool and 22% nylon fibers. Wool&Prince was able to take our feedback after the project and changed their thread to a natural fiber when they later created their next collection of naturally dyed t-shirts, though a nylon thread would have also worked. Our project was a reminder of the challenges natural dyes present when it comes to textiles and fiber content.

Color Consistency

Many different variables affect the growth of a dye plant, including sunlight, water, soil, predation, and temperatures, all of which can change the final color a plant will dye (S. Bellos, personal communication, June 2019). Other variables beyond dyestuff, such as water quality and manufacturing setup, also contribute to greater color variance. Participants discussed these color inconsistencies as a limitation of natural dyes in informal conversations and formal interviews. Production natural dyers such as Wynonna Quigley with Green Matters Dye Company discussed frustration such as “it might take 6 months to figure out like … that batch of madder root had iron in the soil … and so it was contributing to a certain amount of discoloration” (W. Quigley, personal communication, February 7, 2019). Even slight alterations in color can require a dye house to redye or reject a batch of garments or textiles. For this reason, it may be best to develop methods for whole-garment dyeing, since color depends on each natural dye bath.

An insight into color challenges came from Sarah Bellos, founder of the Tennessee-based natural dye production company, Stony Creek Colors (SCC). SCC is one of the only fully commercialized producers of natural dyes in the United States and focuses on manufacturing natural plant-based indigo (S. Bellos, personal communication, June 24, 2019). The lead author spent 3 weeks conducting fieldwork research at SCC in Springfield, Tennessee in June of 2019, with a follow-up visit in October 2019, to better understand how SCC produces large volumes of indigo with consistent color. The objective for SCC has been to offer a transparent supply of natural dyes that is tracible back to the farm where the plants grew. SCC produces roughly 120,000 pounds of indigo per day in the harvest season from late June through early November (S. Bellos, personal communication, June 24, 2019). SCC starts indigo plants from seeds (Indigofera tinctoria, Indigofera suffruticosa, and Persicaria tinctoria) and then transplants them in fields owned by local farmers contracted to work with SCC. Contract farmers are responsible for the cultivation of the indigo crop to maturation. Then SCC harvests the plants and processes the indigo in their factory in Springfield, TN. Most of the yearly harvest is sold to denim mills to dye cotton fabric for blue jeans, while the rest of the indigo is sold to independent artisans or small-scale production dyers. Bellos described the genesis of her idea to start Stoney Creek Colors when:

I realized that there were certainly garment dye houses out there equipped who could potentially process and dye clothing with natural dyes but the supply of the extracts that was available was just really not consistent enough to get great results so we did a couple of trials with those types of garment houses and just found the challenges were really significant and really could be traced back to the inconsistency of the raw material ultimately that was going into the equipment. One of the awesome parts about natural dyes is that they do have lots of chemical constituents in them it can really allow the colors to harmonize very well but it also does present some really significant challenges when you go to make that step change kind of beyond the artisan and craft level into industrial processing where you can’t afford the time to go back and redye something if it doesn't meet … the color standards that the customer set. (S. Bellos, personal communication, June 24, 2019)

Bellos could not achieve consistent results from the raw natural dyestuff and extracts, which inspired a new, innovative approach rooted in science and engineering at SCC. Before and throughout the indigo harvest, an agricultural team visited alternating fields to take indigo plant samples. Lab technicians then analyzed the indican level in each sample. Indican is the chemical precursor to indigo, and levels can vary based on the plants’ maturity and growing conditions. SCC tracked indican levels and evaluated the best time to harvest and process the indigo plants into pigment (S. Bellos, personal communication, June 24, 2019). This type of chemical analysis allowed SCC to produce a more consistent pigment for use in large-scale manufacturing.

Beyond the color consistency between batches of dyestuffs, there are inherent difficulties in using natural dyes in a system optimized for synthetic dye manufacturing. Several individuals described uneven natural dye results while collaborating with traditional synthetic dye houses. Ellie Rivkin, head designer for Wool&Prince, discussed challenges with their overseas producer after our initial experiment dyeing 80 t-shirts:

Ideally, we want to work with our … mass production overseas partners to really have them educated … and be able to produce the natural dyes together … there is definitely some companies that are working toward it. What our obstacles have been, kind of education … they just haven't worked with natural dyes before so it's a different process, it's a different preparation method. You know, when they did sort of an indigo test it kind of came out all splotchy and, you know, we kind of learned that maybe there's a different scouring method involved or, you know, things … like that where they just haven't had experience doing it and that's only a matter of time. We just kind of communicate together and work together to get the right professionals in to teach each other and learn from other companies. (E. Rivkin, personal communication, March 4, 2019)

Conventional dye houses are unlikely to know the extra steps required to use natural dyes since they mostly focus on synthetic dyes. Wool&Prince's line of naturally dyed t-shirts, released in September of 2019, worked with Green Matters Dye Company (GMDC). Winona Quigley owns and operates GMDC based in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The dye house is in a large steel building on the outskirts of town which houses other small-scale manufacturers and businesses such as a woodworking studio and an RV rental business. GMDC is one of the few dedicated natural dye houses in the United States (W. Quigley, personal communication, February 7, 2019). Quigley described GMDC as an all-natural dye service. Fashion labels often present Winona with a description of the color they need. The GMDC team then samples variations of the color and works with the fashion label to produce a desirable shade. Once they decide on a color, the fashion label will ship either fabric or whole garments for them to dye at their factory in Pennsylvania. GMDC naturally dyes the fabric or garments and then ships the product back to the fashion label. The shipping and disbursement of a naturally dyed product lead us to the next steps in the CSFD, distribution, and consumption.

Distribution and Consumption: Connections Between Cloth and the Individual

In the CSFD model, distribution and consumption form a nexus for discussion between producers, their clients, and perceptions and use of naturally dyed garments. In the next section, we will explain how individuals communicate and consume naturally dyed garments.

Distribution of Natural Dyed Products

We found two major distribution points for natural dyes. First, distribution occurs from growers to dyers. A company such as SCC is an example of distribution from a producer to dye houses. However, most large-scale natural dye production happens outside of the United States, thus outside the purview of our study. Another form of distribution is between natural dyers and their clients. This type of distribution comes with challenges for how to communicate and market information about natural dyes. Since natural colorants are unknown to much of the fashion industry, production dyers have found they need to educate their clients about the realities of natural colorant use. Liz Spencer is a production dyer based in southern California and operates The Dogwood Dyer. An experienced dyer, Spencer has collaborated with independent brands such as Colorant, KES NYC, and Svilu to color batches of garments with natural dyes (The Dogwood Dyer, n.d.). In our interview, Spencer explained the necessity of communication this way:

I communicate with my clients at the outset that natural dyes are not synthetic dyes. They're not meant to be forever. And even if you mordant well and scour well and do your due diligence to do everything … and choose the right dyes that are known to be historically lightfast or even done lightfast tests yourself that it is not synthetic petroleum-based colorant that is going to, you know, outlast you. And so that's just that's what you have to understand about natural dyes, is that they will fade. And change. Sometimes they'll even darken with light exposure. (L. Spencer, personal communication, April 11, 2019)

Spencer voices the concern that synthetic dyes have created an unachievable, and perhaps unrequired, standard for natural dyes. As natural dyer and print artist Graham Keegan put it, “I think it's more about the consumer expectation of perfection. Or, you know, the consumer expectation of continuity … that synthetic dyes made possible” (G. Keegan, personal communication, March 8, 2019). Quigley from GMDC also explained the challenges of managing expectations with first-time clients:

Something that we struggle with is managing expectations when a client is coming from having a synthetically dyed product because there are … just different, they're vastly different, especially cellulosic fibers have a little bit of a smaller color pool that we can create. (W. Quigley, personal communication, February 7, 2019)

Both Spencer and Quigley discussed difficulties they found distributing their products to clients, most of whom have expectations based on their experience with synthetic dyes. Another concern voiced by Quigley was the difficulty in the successful creation of black from natural dyes. The achievement of black is a simple one-step process with synthetic dyes, whereas it requires many separate dyebaths with natural dyes. With the increase in dyebaths, more water is used, which is harmful to the environment. An increase in dyebaths also adds to production costs (W. Quigley, personal communication, February 7, 2019). Fashion labels then pass these higher costs onto individuals wanting to purchase a naturally dyed garment. To better understand individuals’ perceptions of naturally dyed garments and their associated costs, we will move to the consumption phase of the CSFD model.

Consumption of Naturally Dyed Products

As previously mentioned, we had the opportunity to survey customers who purchased and used naturally dyed t-shirts from Wool&Prince. We sent the first survey immediately after their purchase and then sent a follow-up survey 4 months later. In the next section, we will describe and discuss the results of these surveys.

For the first study (n = 24), half of the participants had shopped online for clothing 10 or more times over the past year, and nearly three-quarters of those surveyed had purchased clothing from the Wool&Prince website 1–3 times. When asked about what contributed to their purchase decision, three people noted that they supported more environmentally friendly apparel production. One participant said, “[I] love the idea of high quality and environmentally friendly products, and also thought the t-shirt looked fantastic, great color,” and another participant expressed an “Aversion to humanity's reliance on petroleum products; interest in sustainable manufacturing processes; damn good aesthetics.” This is in line with previous research from Kamboj and Mahajan (2017) that found 64.42% of their surveyed participants (N = 45) perceived natural dyes as eco-friendly. Three individuals did mention the undyed stitching. When asked about their initial thoughts one person said, “Very positive. The only possible negative is the white stitching.”

For the second survey, we asked if they were satisfied with their naturally dyed t-shirt, and all replied positively (n = 18). Some went further and explained they enjoyed the textile's hand and drape and were pleased with the garment's comfort and fit. Others mentioned the heathered look of the dye and said, “The color is deep, rich and natural looking burnt orange with very pleasant subtle variations in color that seem to add texture and depth to the fabric,” and another said “the color has held fast despite weekly use, regular sun exposure, and multiple washings. The variations in color of the garment are somewhat harsher than I prefer.” We also asked survey participants how they laundered their naturally dyed t-shirts since washing can alter some naturally dyed textiles’ color. Three had not washed their garments, four had washed them 1–3 times, six had washed them 4–7 times, and four participants had washed them 8–11 times. Two individuals reported that they saw a color difference and that the color had lightened. When asked if they would purchase another naturally dyed garment from Wool&Prince, all 18 participants answered “yes,” and two individuals mentioned the need for a reasonable price point. While a small number of survey respondents mentioned their reluctance to pay more for naturally dyed products, it could represent a difficulty for fashion labels that want to use natural dyes. Currently, the natural dye process is much more labor and knowledge-intensive, which increases the overall price of production.

We delivered these results to Wool&Prince, which helped guide another collection of naturally dyed Wool&Prince garments. All companies should consider natural dyes’ effects on differing fibers and use a natural or nylon thread to construct garments. Furthermore, while customers perceived natural dyes as an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional colorants, companies need to communicate the reason for an increased price point with naturally dyed garments.

Regulation: The Fight to Control Intellectual Property

Regulation may be formal (e.g., laws, codes, and policies) or informal (e.g., social pressure, self-regulation, and cultural discourses), but each shape the way we create knowledge, share ideas, and circulate materials and images. In natural dye communities, anxieties around intellectual property related to natural dye processes are a central subject of regulation. A quick search through U.S. patents shows that individuals have patented mordant and dye recipes (Echeverry et al., 2011; Goswami & Ganguly, 2004; Gurley, 1995; Ortalano & Vissing, 2003), which produces a formal regulation of information. However, in our discussions with participants, it was evident that informal regulation of natural dye information was common. In other words, natural dyers choose, through a process of self-regulation fueled by structures of feeling like anxiety, whether to share information with other individuals. While some were protective of knowledge, natural dyers also described the need to share information to enhance awareness of natural dyes. Ambivalences around the process of information sharing abound in natural dye communities. Graham Keegan, a textile print designer based in Los Angeles, CA, was one such dyer who opted for a more open-source approach. Keegan explained his philosophy as:

I'm of the camp of like, you know, share the knowledge. I think it's such a challenging, diverse, and huge landscape that there's plenty of room for everybody. I think … if you are a person who only kind of does one thing and that's your product, that can be dangerous to share your knowledge there, because then you could hypothetically be in direct competition with people. But in my case, if I’m just sharing how to do this stuff, you know, the people also have to have a want to figure out how to do it and then figure out what their setup is gonna be. There's a very high bar in terms of like competency. (G. Keegan, personal communication, March 8, 2019)

In a separate interview with Lydia Wendt, we discussed a lack of information sharing in the fashion industry and possible solutions for future dialogue (L. Wendt, personal communication, March 2, 2019). Wendt is the founder of California Cloth Foundry, a naturally dyed casual knitwear clothing brand from California. Wendt has also taken part in projects beyond apparel that promote the discussion of climate change. In 2018, Wendt's company dyed tablecloths for the Global Climate Action Summit where chef Alice Waters served only ingredients that could survive rising global temperatures (Neubauer, 2018). Wendt suggested the researchers host a symposium or a virtual round table of natural dyers.

Individuals who agreed to participate in our study, for the most part, readily provided us with information concerning natural dyes. The interest to grow natural dye communities and promote the environmental sustainability movement was central to the identity of many people that we talked to. The one exception was a company that is beholden to investors, namely Stoney Creek Colors. This is not to say that the company was not interested in promotion and knowledge-sharing, but that the complex power dynamics under late capitalism and the need for investment meant that their ability to do so was curtailed. To gain access to interviews at this company the lead author had to sign a nondisclosure agreement. As businesses invest money into the development of natural dyes, it is likely researchers will see more information become increasingly proprietary. However, this presents a contradiction to many dyers who choose to use natural dyes for sustainability reasons. They see promotion and the sharing of environmentally friendly methods as the way forward for fashion production. Ambivalence, again, was a feeling that shaped relationships within and across the fashion industry and the economic systems, influencing possibilities. In the next section, we will further discuss how natural dyes shape identities through the process of subject formation.

Subject Formation: Identities Produced Through Natural Dyes

Subject formation is the process of being and becoming (Kaiser & Green, 2021). It is not a static concept but instead represents ever-changing identities and subjectivities. Subject formation is also connected to how and why individuals choose to use and/or wear natural dyes. As mentioned in the Wool&Prince surveys, environmental concerns were a key theme that emerged from consumers of natural dye products. Moreover, many of the participants we interviewed made the connection between natural dyes and environmental sustainability. For Rebecca Burgess, natural dyes are central to ecological sustainability in the fashion industry. Burgess is the founder and executive director of Fibershed and has authored books on fashion sustainability and natural dyes, most notably Fibershed: Growing a Movement of Farmers, Fashion Activists, and Makers for a New Textile Economy (Burgess & White, 2019) and Harvesting Color: How to Find Plants and Make Natural Dyes (Burgess, 2011). Burgess champions the use of natural dyes that are beneficial to the regional fibershed and explained “My practice was always about how to work with plants that are indigenous to my area that could grow with the existing rainfall patterns” (R. Burgess, personal communication, March 30, 2019). As Burgess mentioned, natural dyes are not sustainable in the current fashion industry as it operates. The effort to scale natural dyes to fit the current consumption model will not work unless the fashion industry changes radically (R. Burgess, personal communication, March 30, 2019). Fashion companies must holistically address their volume of garment production, their workers’ health, and the cost of production while considering the utilization of sustainable methods. The most considerable challenge to natural dyes lies within a fashion industry based on the large volume production of cheap clothing (Bechtold et al., 2003; Fletcher & Grose, 2012).

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

Through the lens of the CSFD model, we have interpreted the current challenges and innovations concerning the use of natural dyes in the United States. For production, we found that companies are trying to scale up the manufacturing of naturally dyed garments, but there are challenges, such as natural textiles, blends, and uneven dye results. Our experience dyeing Wool&Prince t-shirts was a reminder of this challenge regarding fibers and their material properties. We, therefore, advise companies to consider the fiber content of textiles, threads, and findings when manufacturing a naturally dyed garment. When it comes to improving color consistency, businesses such as SCC are innovating new natural dye production methods through scientific testing and enhanced agricultural sampling. Another innovation is the use of dedicated natural dye houses such as GMDC, which specializes in natural dyes for whole garment, fiber, and textile coloration. For distribution, individuals who create naturally dyed products have been challenged by communication with clients, most of whom have expectations rooted in normalized experiences with synthetic dyes. This has led natural dyers to develop innovative ways to educate about the differences between natural and synthetic dyes. We encourage natural dye companies to be fully transparent about the advantages and disadvantages of natural dyes according to current industry standards, and the potential for increased costs when communicating with clients. Regarding consumption, we found that individuals who purchased naturally dyed garments sought to support more environmentally friendly apparel production. However, a small number of participants also mentioned they would be reluctant to pay more for naturally dyed products. This presents a challenge to companies interested in using natural dyes since the natural dye process can be more labor and knowledge-intensive, which increases the overall price of production. We suggest fashion labels educate consumers about how natural dyes differ from synthetic dyes and present a transparent review of their natural dye process. When it comes to regulation, our research found that the industry needs to be aware of informal and formal codes of knowledge sharing when it comes to proprietary information on the use of natural dyes. As businesses invest money into the development of natural dyes, it is increasingly likely researchers will see more information become proprietary. However, this is in opposition to the subject formation of many dyers who choose to use natural dyes because of social and environmental sustainability. They see the promotion and open sharing of environmentally friendly methods as a way forward for fashion production. Admittedly, the competitive nature of the U.S. economic system, heavily influenced by capitalism, makes this type of open sharing difficult. However, it would be the quickest way to grow knowledge and in turn the scale and sustainable use of natural dyes in the fashion industry. One innovation could be a code of ethics that considers intellectual property as collective, where sharing resources and information between natural dyers and natural dye companies is open source. Future research might involve writing a research-based report that explores this and provides recommendations. Finally, for subject formation, our participants communicated a belief that natural dyes are an environmentally sustainable alternative to synthetics; however, the major challenge is that natural dyes currently are not scaled to meet the demands of the fashion industry—a demand that in and of itself is often counter to climate justice. Through the ongoing exploration of natural dyes disruptions at small and large scales may contribute to positive change. We suggest that companies continue to find innovative ways to holistically address their volume of garment production, their workers’ health, and the cost of production while considering sustainable methods.

Limitations and Future Research

Research is always limited by researchers’ perspectives and biases. The authors of this article are active participants in the use of natural dyes and thus promote the use of natural colorants through their creative scholarship. These biases affected how we viewed their potential use in the fashion industry. Our research participants were also making a living selling naturally dyed goods, so they aimed to promote them in the best possible light. In future research of all kinds, we aim for greater critical self-reflection and interpretation. This may include more conversations with individuals opposed to the use of natural dyes or research methods. We developed an online survey to mitigate some biases, but the survey involved self-reporting and there was no way to verify responses.

Other ideas for future research include interviewing individuals working at dye houses that are switching from synthetic to natural dyes. As Ellie Rivkin pointed out during our interview, “[Dye houses] just haven’t had experience doing it and that's only a matter of time” (E. Rivkin, personal communication, March 4, 2019). Documenting the process of using natural dyes in a facility that had previously only used synthetic dyes would lead to a much deeper understanding of a traditional dyehouse's challenges and innovations in adopting natural dyes. Future research could also help quantify the amount of water used by natural dyes compared to synthetic dyes since comparisons until this point have been based on conjecture. By building a better understanding of how natural dyes affect ecologies, we can create conditions of possibility for the betterment of the planet and people in fashion production.