The social science literature on ethnically divided states is huge and varied, but suggestions for constitutional solutions are strangely uniform: “loose federations” of ethnically defined ministates, with minimal central authority that must act by consensus and thus cannot act at all on issues that are contested rather than consented. In Bosnia, the political system mandated by the international High Representative suffer the same structural flaws that were used to make the former Yugoslav federation and the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina unworkable. Similarly nonviable systems were proposed in 1994 to 1995 for Croatia and in 1998 to 1999 for Kosovo and recently for Cyprus and for Iraq. This article analyzes the paradox of mandating consensus-based politics in ethnically divided states, inclusion in which does not have the consent of most members of at least one group.
ARENDT, Hanna (1966) The Origins of Totalitarianism (rev. ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace, New York.
2.
ARNAUTOVICV, Suad (1996) Izbori u Bosni I Hercegovini ’90. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Promocult.
3.
AUSTIN, Granville (2000) Working a Democratic Constitution: The Indian Experience. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.
4.
BACVEVICV, Ljiljana (1991) “Jugoslavija izmedju Prošlosti I Buduc!nosti,” in Lj. Bac!evic! et al., Jugoslavija na Kriznoj Prekretnici. Beograd, Yugoslavia: Institut Društvenih Nauka.
5.
BARRINGTON, Lowell (1995) “The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet Successor States.”Europe-Asia Studies47: 731-763.
6.
BILDT, Carl (1998) Peace Journey: The Struggle for Peace in Bosnia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
7.
BINDER, David (1993) “U.S. Policymakers on Bosnia Admit Error in Opposing Partition in 1992.”The New York Times, Aug. 29: 8-8.
8.
BOGOSAVLJEVICV, Srdjan (2000) “The Unresolved Genocide,” in Nebojša Popov, ed., The Road to War in Serbia: Trauma and Catharsis. Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press.
9.
BOSE, Sumantra (2002) Bosnia after Dayton: Nationalist Partition and International Intervention. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10.
BURG, Steven and Paul SHOUP (1999) The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
11.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (2002) Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990-95, Vol. I. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency.
12.
DJILAS, Aleksa (1991) The Contested Country. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
13.
DJILAS, Milovan (1980) Wartime. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
14.
DJORDJEVICV, Dimitrije (1989) “Migrations during the 1912-1913 Balkans Wars and World War One,” in Ivan Ninic!, ed., Migrations in Balkan History. Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
15.
DRAGOVICV-SOSO, Jasna (2002) “Saviors of the Nation:” Serbia’s Intellectual Opposition and the Revival of Nationalism. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
16.
GALBRAITH, Peter (2004) “How to Get Out of Iraq.”New York Review of Books, May 13 2004: 42-46.
17.
GELB, Leslie (2003) “The Three-State Solution.”The New York Times, Nov. 25 2003 (op-ed page).
18.
GOATI, Vladimir (1991) “Stavovi Gradjana o Promenama Poitičkog Sistema: O Državnom Uredjenju I Višepartizmu,” in Lj. Bac!evic! et al., Jugoslavija na Kriznoj Prekretnici. Beograd, Yugoslavia: Institut Društvenih Nauka.
19.
GOATI, Vladimir (1992) “Politički Život Bosne I Hercegovine 1989-1992,” in S. Bogosavljevic! et al., Bosna I Hercegovina izmedju Rata I Mira. Beograd, Yugoslavia: Institut Društvenih Nauka.
20.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (1994) “Recounting the Dead: The Rediscovery and Redefinition of Wartime Massacres in Late- and Post-Communist Yugoslavia,” in Rubie S. Watson, ed., Memory, History and opposition under State Socialism. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.
21.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (1996a) “Constitutional Nationalism and the Logic of the Wars in Yugoslavia.”Problems of Post-Communism Sept./Oct. 1996: 25-35.
22.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (1996b) “Imagined Communities and Real Victims: Self-Determination and Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia.”American Ethnologist23: 783-801.
23.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (1996c) “Schindler’s Fate: Genocide, Ethnic cleansing and Population Transfers.”Slavic Review55: 727-48 and 767-78.
24.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (1999) Blueprints for a House Divided: The Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav Conflicts. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
25.
HAYDEN, Robert M. (2002) “Antagonistic Tolerance: Competitive Sharing of Religious Sites in South Asia and the Balkans.”Current Anthropology43: 205-31.
26.
LAMPE, John (1996) Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
27.
LIJPHART, Arend (1984) Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
28.
MIRIC v, Jovan (1996) Demokracija u Postkomunisticki Društvima. Zagreb, Croatia: Prosvjeta.
29.
OSCE Commission (1996) “The September 1996 elections in Bosnia-Herzegovina,”U.S. Congress, Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Sept. 26, 1996.
30.
OWEN, David (1995) Balkan Odyssey. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
31.
PANTIC v, Dragomir (1991) “Nacionalna Distanca Gradjana Jugoslavije,” in Lj. Bac!evic! et al., eds., Jugoslavija na Kriznoj Prekretnici. Beograd, Yugoslavia: Institut Društvenih Nauka.
32.
RADOVANOVIC v, Zoran (2002) “Kakav je bio položaj administrativo izbrisanih ‘južnjaka’ u Sloveniji u poslednjoj deceniji,” Danas (Beograd, Yugoslavia), June 25-28.
33.
RAMET, Sabrina (2000) “Revisiting the Horrors of Bosnia: New Books about the War.”East European Politics and Societies14: 475-86.
34.
RON, James (2003) Frontiers and Ghettos; State Violence in Serbia and Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press.
35.
SAVEZNI DRUŠTVENI SAVET ZA PITANJA DRUŠTVENOG UREDJENJE (1985) Kriticka Analiza Funkcionisanja Politickog Sistema Socijalistickog Samoupravljana. Beograd, Yugoslavia: Center za Radnickog Samoupravljanje.
36.
SMOOHA, Sammy (1990) “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: The Status of the Arab Minority in Israel.”Ethnic and Racial Studies13: 389-413.
37.
SMOOHA, Sammy (1997) “Ethnic Democracy: Israel as an Archetype.”Israel Studies2: 198-241.
38.
STAVRIANOS, L. S. (2000) The Balkans since 1453. New York: NYU Press.
39.
SUDETIC, Chuck (1998) Blood and Vengeance: One Family’s Story of the War in Bosnia. New York: Penguin.
40.
TRIFUNOVSKA, Snežana (1994) Yugoslavia through Documents. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Nijhoff.
41.
VARSHNEY, Ashutosh (1993) “Contested Meanings: India’s National Identity, Hindu Nationalism and the Politics of Anxiety.”Daedalus122 (3): 227-61.
42.
WORLD BANK (2002) Bosnia and Herzegovina: Local Institutions and Social Capital Study. Washington, DC: World Bank.
