Relationships Between Career Counseling Attitudes and Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Among Emirati University Students

Career Counseling in UAE

Recently, career counseling in the UAE has gained importance assisting Emirati individuals with the challenges resulting from rapid economic changes. However, career counseling in the UAE is not as well developed or widely accessible as it is in western culture. It is mainly provided in high schools and colleges in the form of career-advising programs and annual job fairs. This is changing for several reasons. Career counseling prepares Emiratis for the changing vocational environment. It offers Emiratis opportunities to explore career options, which often appear limited due to cultural factors such as family involvement in career choices and prevailing social preference for traditionally gender-specific occupations (Al-Darmaki & Sayed, 2004, 2009; Soliman, 1986). Occupations such as teaching and nursing are considered traditionally female occupations whereas engineering and medicine are considered traditionally male occupations. Career counseling can also help young Emiratis increase their self-knowledge and gain qualifications and skills in areas they may not have considered previously (Al-Samadi & Al-Tahan, 1997; Soliman, 1986). It can also assist students to deal with issues that arise due to limited vocational experience and can teach them how to make independent and informed career decisions (Al-Darmaki & Sayed, 2009; Soliman, 1986).

Attitudes Toward Career Counseling

There is evidence in the literature that supports the effectiveness of personal and career counseling with college students (e.g., Lee, Olson, Locke, Michelson, & Odes, 2009; Ludwikowski, Vogel, & Armstrong, 2009; Paulson, Truscott, & Stuart, 1999; Whiston & Rahardja, 2008). Increased academic retention and performance, exposure to knowledge and new perspectives, and releasing emotions are some of the benefits of counseling for students reported by researchers (Lee et al., 2009; Paulson et al., 1999). In addition, college men indicated that they would seek career help for reasons such as obtaining general career assistance and exploring career options (Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002). However, many of those who need career counseling do not use it (Ludwikowski et al., 2009).

Career counseling attitudes are a factor that seems to contribute to college students’ decisions to consider seeking help (Rochlen et al., 1999). Rochlen et al. (1999) developed ATCCS to measure career counseling attitudes of American college students in relation to other variables such as gender, career decision making, and likelihood of seeking career counseling (see also Rochlen et al., 2002). Research suggests that a positive attitude toward career counseling increases the likelihood of seeking it and for making career decisions.

Research on the counseling needs of young Arabs suggests that career counseling would help them gain career and self-awareness and make independent educational and vocational decisions (Soliman, 1986). Only two studies have examined Emirati college students’ career counseling needs and concerns (Al-Samadi & Al-Tahan, 1997; Shawky, 2003). These studies found that UAE students have difficulty selecting majors and identifying their career interests and requirements. In addition, students reported anxiety about career planning and expressed a need for help with career-related issues. Whether those students would actually seek career counseling was not explored in these studies. Despite its apparent value, systematic practical observations indicate that the majority of UAE students do not seek career counseling. Those who do are mostly referred by faculty or staff. Although Arab individuals expressed willingness to consider obtaining help from professional counselors for career concerns, counselors were sought out the least in comparison to other sources of help, such as family members and close friends (Soliman, 1993).

Students’ underutilization of career counseling services may be due to fear of self-disclosure of personal–emotional problems (e.g., Al-Darmaki, 2003; Sayed, 2002) and the stigma associated with mental health services (Komiya, Good, & Sherrod, 2000; Ludwikowski et al., 2009; Sayed, 2002). In the Arab culture, disclosure of personal problems may be seen a betrayal of one’s family and a weakness in the individual. In addition, the stigma of mental illness persists among the public, despite the availability of mental health services (Al-Darmaki & Sayed, 2009). College students’ reluctance to seek career counseling could also be interpreted as a lack of knowledge regarding the availability, nature, and benefits of such services (Rochlen et al., 2002). It may be that seeking career counseling is also influenced by the person’s social network (Ludwikowski et al., 2009; Vogel, Wester, & Larson, 2007).

Previous research has examined the impact of gender on general help-seeking attitudes (Al-Darmaki, 2003; Al-Samadi, 1994; Fischer & Farina, 1995; Komiya et al., 2000) and career help (Ludwikowski et al., 2009; Rochlen et al., 1999; Rochlen et al., 2002). Women tend to show more positive help-seeking attitudes than men (e.g., Al-Samadi, 1994; Fischer & Farina, 1995; Komiya et al., 2000). However, no gender difference in professional help-seeking attitudes was found in the UAE college sample (Al-Darmaki, 2003). Rochlen et al. (1999) and Ludwikowski, Vogel, and Armstrong (2009) reported gender differences in stigma attached to career counseling, with men exhibiting higher stigma levels than women. However, American college men and women showed similar and relatively positive value levels toward career counseling (Rochlen et al., 1999). Ludwikowski et al. found men to report that they would gain more value from attending career counseling, when compared to women.

There is also evidence in the literature suggesting that college education and majors, influence individuals’ attitudes toward seeking help. Higher levels of education and social sciences majors were related to positive help-seeking attitudes compared to minimal levels of college education and science-related specialties (Al-Darmaki, 2003; Fischer & Cohen, 1972; Fischer & Farina, 1995; Fischer, Winer, & Abramowitz, 1983). In this study, the impact of the demographic variables of gender, level of college education, and college majors in Emirati college students’ perceptions of seeking career counseling was investigated. Based on the review above, it was expected that women would show more value and less stigma toward career counseling than men. In addition, it was expected that those who are majoring in social sciences and with more college education would exhibit more positive career counseling attitudes.

Self-Esteem and Attitudes Toward Career Counseling

There is evidence in the literature that supports the impact of self-esteem on attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. However, its role in this is not fully understood. A person may decide not to seek help to protect against feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, or admitting inability to solve his or her own problems (Nadler, 1991; Vogel et al., 2007). Research has shown a relationship between self-esteem and a willingness to seek professional help (e.g., Al-Darmaki, 2003; Tessler & Schwartz, 1972; Wills & DePaulo, 1991). With the exception of one study conducted in the UAE (Al-Darmaki, 2003), research suggests that people with high self-esteem may show greater reluctance to seek help to maintain a positive self-image. The relationship between self-esteem and seeking career counseling has not been examined. Investigating the relationship between career counseling attitudes and self-esteem in the UAE may lead to a significant addition to the career counseling attitudes literature. Based on what is known about the relationship between self-esteem and general help-seeking attitudes with Emirati samples, it was expected that those with high self-esteem would report more value and less stigma for seeking career counseling.

Self-Efficacy and Attitudes Toward Career Counseling

Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997, 2002, 2006, 2008) is considered one of the internal/psychological variables that affect career development and career choices of both men and women (Hackett & Betz, 1981). According to Betz and Fitzgerald (1987), women tend to feel less efficacious in considering traditionally male-dominated educational majors and careers because of cultural (e.g., gender-role socialization), subcultural (e.g., race and religion), and familial factors (e.g., maternal education). In the Arab world, many people are socialized to consider only traditionally gender-dominated occupations, and women may feel limited to occupations that permit minimal interactions with men (Al-Darmaki & Sayed, 2004, 2009; Soliman, 1986, 1993). Emirati individuals are less likely to choose occupations that are dominated by the opposite gender even though they are encouraged to do so. Therefore, those with high self-efficacy considering nontraditional gender occupations may view career counseling as having more value and fewer stigmas, as it will help to maximize the personality–occupation match.

This study investigated the relationship between attitudes toward career counseling and self-efficacy in the Emirati culture; specifically, how generalized self-efficacy would relate to career counseling attitudes of college students in all majors. This study was concerned with the more trait-like generality dimension of self-efficacy than task-specific self-efficacy because it captures how people perceive themselves and their capabilities in meeting task demands in a wide range of contexts (Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001). The individual’s “positive self-efficacy expectancies are important to self-directed behavior” (Sherer & Adams, 1983, p. 901). Those who feel efficacious in their ability to initiate a relationship with a counselor might place more value on seeking career counseling. The findings of this study may add a significant contribution to our knowledge pertaining to factors affecting individuals’ willingness to seek career counseling.

In conclusion, examining college students’ attitudes toward career counseling is one area that could lead to a better understanding of Emirati college students’ underutilization of career counseling services offered by their academic institutions. The current study aims at extending our knowledge of factors contributing to college students’ attitudes toward career counseling by examining this construct in the Emirati culture. To do so, a validation of the ATCCS is sought through factor analysis. This study investigates the following research questions: (a) Is there any association between Emirati college students’ attitudes toward career counseling and the demographic variables of gender, years of college education, and college major? and (b) Is there any relationship between attitudes toward career counseling and self-esteem and self-efficacy? Based on the literature reviewed above, it was hypothesized that women participants would perceive career counseling as more valuable and less stigmatizing than men. In addition, it was hypothesized that participants who were seniors and majoring in humanities and social sciences would have positive attitudes toward career counseling. Furthermore, the study hypothesized that there would be a significant positive relationship between attitudes toward career counseling and both self-esteem and self-efficacy. The results of this study may also be useful in designing marketing strategies and interventions to increase the likelihood of students’ use of career services in the UAE.

Participants

Nine hundred and fifty six undergraduate men and women from general UAE university courses participated in this investigation. These courses were identified through the registration office during the time this study was conducted and were selected because they usually have high enrollment of students representing various college majors and educational levels. Participants were recruited through classrooms visits. All the students enrolled in these courses agreed to take part in this study and provided complete data. There were 458 (47.9%) men and 498 (52.1%) women. The mean age for the total sample was 20.61 (SD = 2.04). The majority of the participants 847 (88.7%) were single. Of the entire sample, there were 528 (55.2%) majoring in humanities and 428 (44.8%) representing hard science majors. Of the total sample, 449 participants (47%) had less than 53 credit hours in their majors and 431 (45%) had more than 52 credit hours and about 7.9% of the sample did not indicate the number of credit hours completed at the time of the study. The mean of educational level was 2.71 years of college (SD = 1.44), indicating that most participants had competed at least 52 credit hours of college education at the time this study was conducted. The test–retest sample consisted of 133 undergraduate men (n = 53) and women (n = 80). The test–retest sample was taken from the total sample and, therefore, was recruited in the same manner as the sample of the study.

Instruments

Procedure

A packet of the measures along with a consent form and a demographic sheet was distributed to the volunteer participants during class time and were instructed to fill out the survey and return it before leaving the classroom. The administration time was about 30 min.

Data Analysis

The data from the test–retest sample were used to obtain the reliability and construct validity estimates of the measures. Then, the data of ATCCS derived from the total sample were factor analyzed. Following the procedure used by Rochlen et al. (1999), principal components analysis extraction with varimax rotation was performed on the 16 items of ATCCS to examine the replicability of the factor structure of the ATCCS with a college student sample from the UAE University. This decision was made, as the current study is an exploratory investigation. Further checks of the stability of the factor structure of ATCCS in the UAE culture should be considered using confirmatory factor analysis. A t test procedure was performed to investigate the mean scores differences for men and women on both Value scores and Stigma scores using the demographic variables (i.e., gender, educational level, and college major). Finally, correlations matrices of the variables under investigation (ATCCS subscales, GSE, SSE, and SES) were computed to examine the relationships among these variables.

Factor Analysis

The presence of outliers and normality of the variables were checked univariately prior analyzing the ATCCS. Based on principal components analysis extraction with varimax rotation, items loading at least .40 on only one factor were included in a factor. Item loadings ranged from .46 to .73. Two clean factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted. The two factors explained 42.71% of the total variance, which is less than the amount of variance (i.e., 80%) reported by Rochlen et al. (1999). The Eigenvalues for the first and second factors were 3.59 and 3.24, which accounted for 22.46% and 20.25% of the variance, respectively. The first factor was composed of 8 items (i.e., 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, and 15), which measure the value of receiving career counseling. The second factor was composed of 8 items (i.e., 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, and 16), which measure stigma associated with seeking career counseling. Accordingly, the first factor was labeled Value scale and the second factor was labeled Stigma scale. The means for the two subscales of ATCCS were 17.79 (SD = 4.00; score range = .00 to 24.00) and 9.41 (SD = 4.64; score range = .00 to 24.00). The factor structure of the ATCCS found in this study was similar to what was reported earlier by Rochlen et al. (1999). However, the amount of variance explained by the two factors raises a question about the cross-cultural validity of the ATCCS. It could be that there were other variables (e.g., family values and cultural beliefs about career counseling and its role and nature) contributing to Emirati college students’ attitudes toward career counseling that are not explained by the ATCCS. In addition, Items 5, 9, and 16 of the Stigma subscale contain phrases such as “Talking to a therapist,” “My feelings about counseling in general,” and “Having to see a counselor,” which may actually measure stigma toward counseling or therapy in general rather than career counseling in the UAE. This could also explain the low alphas obtained for the subscales. This result suggests a need to develop a career counseling attitudes measure that would be more relevant to the UAE culture.

Gender Differences in ATCCS

Concerning gender differences in the Value and Stigma subscales scores, an independent t test procedure was used. All mean scores and standard deviations are reported in Table 1. Women significantly showed higher value for seeking career counseling than men (t = −3.94, p = .000), whereas men significantly expressed a higher stigma for career counseling than women (t = 7.61, p = .000). These findings seem to be consistent with previous findings (Rochlen et al., 1999), yet dissimilar from Al-Darmaki’s (2003) study in which Emirati college men reported slightly positive attitudes toward seeking professional help. However, the mean scores of Value and Stigma suggest that men and women generally expressed high value for seeking career counseling yet were showing a slight stigma toward career counseling.

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Table 1.

Means and Standard Deviations and t Test for Men and Women for the Variables Under Investigation

Variables	M	SD	t	df	Sig.
M value	17.26	4.04	−3.94	954	.000
F value	18.28	3.91
M stigma	10.56	4.69	7.61	954	.000
F stigma	8.34	4.32
M self-esteem	25.81	3.27	−1.81	954	.071
F self-esteem	26.27	4.03
M G self-efficacy	71.83	12.85	−1.62	954	.106
F G self-efficacy	73.23	13.88
M S self-efficacy	24.07	4.63	−1.76	954	.079
F S self-efficacy	24.66	5.55
Value for M of less Ed	16.85	4.02	−2.07	397	.039
Value for M of more Ed	17.69	4.03
Stigma for F in humanities	8.87	4.27	3.19	496	.002
Stigma for F in hard sciences	7.64	4.29

Note. Value and Stigma are the subscales of Attitudes Toward Career Counseling Scale (ATCCS). M = Men; F = Women; G efficacy = general self-efficacy; S efficacy = social self-efficacy; Ed = education.

p < .05.

With regard to gender differences across college majors, women majoring in humanities showed more stigma than those majoring in hard science majors (t = 3.19, p = .002). This result seems to be inconsistent with earlier findings that those who were in art-related majors exhibited more favorable attitudes toward seeking professional help than those in the hard sciences majors (Al-Darmaki, 2003). No significant mean scores differences were found between men in humanities majors and hard science majors for either Value or Stigma subscales. Regarding gender differences across years of college education, men with more years in college education scored significantly higher on Values scale than those with less years of college education (t = −2.07, p = .039). However, no significant mean scores differences were found between women who had less college education and those of more college education for Value subscale. This result is partially consistent with findings of previous research (Al-Darmaki, 2003). In 2003, Al-Darmaki’s study showed that both Emirati men and women with more college education reported favorable attitudes toward professional help seeking. Results also showed that there were no significant mean scores differences between men and women on GSE, or SSE, or SES.

Correlation Coefficients

Correlation coefficients were run for men and women separately and for the total sample. Due to the large sample size used in this study, some relatively small correlations can be statistically significant. Caution should be exercised in interpreting the findings of this study. In addition, to reduce the chance of getting significant results due to chance between attitudes toward career counseling and the variables under investigation, only those correlations significant at p <.01were considered. With regard to the hypothesized relationship between attitudes toward career counseling and college education and college major, a small yet significant correlation (r = −.14) was found between Stigma subscale and college major for women only. This means that women majoring in humanities and social sciences reported more stigma than those of hard science majors.

Table 2 shows small to moderate significant correlations between ATCCS subscales and GSE, SSE, and SES scores for men and women. Men’s Value scores were associated negatively with Stigma scores (r = −.14) yet positively with GSE (r = .14) and SES (r = .18). These results indicate that men who valued seeking career counseling exhibited high levels of self-esteem and general self-efficacy. Men’s Stigma scores were significantly negatively correlated with GSE (r = −.48), SSE (r = −.21), and SES (r = −.28). Men who reported a high stigma related to career counseling showed low levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy. These findings provide support for the hypothesis of the study. Likewise, women’s Value scores were associated negatively with Stigma Scores (r = −.22) and positively with SSE (r = .14) and with SES (r = .15), indicating that women who valued career counseling reported high levels of self-esteem and social self-efficacy. Women’s Stigma scores were negatively correlated with GSE (r = −.44), with SSE (r = −.29), and with SES (r = −.29). Women who showed a high stigma related to career counseling exhibited low levels of general and social self-efficacy and self-esteem. Consistent with previous research findings (Chen et al., 2001; Sherer et al., 1982), the results also showed positive correlations between self-esteem and self-efficacy for both men and women. These findings suggest that men and women who feel good about their personal qualities also feel efficacious generally and socially.

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Table 2.

Correlations Coefficients Among the Variables Under Investigations for Men, Women Samples, and Total Sample

Variables	1	2	3	4	5
1.Value
Men	–
Women	–
Total	–
2. Stigma
Men	−.14 *	–
Women	−.22 *	–
Total	−.20 *	–
3. G efficacy
Men	.14 *	−.48 *	–
Women	.07	−.44 *	–
Total	.11 *	−.46 *	–
4. S Efficacy
Men	.093	−.21 *	.39 *	–
Women	.14 *	−.29 *	.49 *	–
Total	.13 *	−.25 *	.46 *	–
5. Self-esteem
Men	.18 *	−.28 *	.41 *	.25 *	–
Women	.15 *	−.29 *	.44 *	.39 *	–
Total	.17 *	−.29 *	.43 *	.33 *	–

Note. Value and stigma are the subscales of Attitudes Toward Career Counseling Scale (ATCCS). G efficacy = general self-efficacy; S efficacy = social self-efficacy. N: men = 458; women = 498;

^* p < .01.

Limitations of the Study

Although the current study was the first in adapting ATCCS to Arab culture, it has a number of methodological limitations. The ATCCS was validated against two relatively old psychological scales with marginal reliabilities. The large sample size of this study could cause some relatively small correlations to be statistically significant, although they may not represent any truly useful relationships. Therefore, the reader should be cautious in interpreting the results of both the correlations and the psychometrics of the translated scales. The scales of this study were translated using a traditional back-translation method and, therefore, verification of semantic equivalence of the translated measures to the original scales was based on subjective judgments that may not indicate content equivalence. Cross-cultural comparisons of the current results should be done with caution. Future studies should consider verifying semantic equivalence of these measures using more rigor methods such as the dual language, split-half quantitative methods of verifications developed by Mallinckrodt and Wang (2004) to supplement the back-translation of the adapted measures.

Implications

Despite its limitations, the findings of the current study have significant implications for both researchers and practitioners. The factor structure of ATCCS obtained in this study should be replicated using confirmatory factor analysis to test the degree to which this factor structure fits data obtained from different research samples. Future research should continue establishing the reliability and validity of ATCCS in the Emirati culture using psychometrically well-established measures. Career counseling attitudes are a new construct in UAE and may be culturally determined. Therefore, researchers may consider conducting interviews, as qualitative data would be useful in developing a culturally relevant measure of this construct, which would give a clearer picture of how career counseling is perceived within the context of Emirati culture. Future investigations may consider examining the relationship between college students’ attitudes toward career counseling and the likelihood of seeking career counseling. In addition, examining the Emirati college students’ reasons to seek or not to seek career counseling would be informative.

Practitioners should explore other alternative methods for marketing career counseling services such as implementing interventions (e.g., a video or brochure), which target changing or enhancing students’ perceptions of career counseling. In addition, exploring clients’ concerns and expectations about career counseling would enhance the development of the working alliance with them. Outreach efforts should focus on reducing barriers to seeking career counseling as well as increasing students’ awareness of the availability of such services and its value for their career development. To reduce stigma associated with mental health services on college campuses, career counseling providers should consider using the Internet (e.g., online counseling) as an alternative method for counseling. In addition, separating career services from the facility where personal counseling is provided might enhance students’ use of career counseling. Finally, career counselors should explore clients’ perceptions of the self in relation to receiving career counseling and making career decisions.