The Influence of Youth Assets on the Career Decision Self-Efficacy in Unattached Jamaican Youth

Abstract

The present study expands the career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) literature by focusing on a sample of unattached Jamaican youth to determine if youth assets (protective factors like family communication and peer role models) were predictive of increased CDSE. Unattached youth are defined as those that do not have a job or are not currently enrolled in any educational or other training program. Participants consisted of 921 unattached Jamaican youth (557 females) ranging from 16 to 25 years of age. Participants completed the Career Decision Self-Efficacy-Short Form Scale and the Youth Asset Survey. Results from multiple regression analyses revealed that female youth reported higher CDSE scores than their male counterparts. Results also indicated that youth who reported making more responsible choices, having higher future aspirations, and having more peer and nonparental adult role models had higher CDSE scores. Implications for practice are discussed relative to the culture of Jamaica and unattached youth.

Keywords

unattached youth youth assets career decision self-efficacy

Unattached youth in Jamaica represent a large portion of the society that without intervention are at risk of poverty, unemployment, and possible delinquent or deviant behaviors associated with low education and underemployment. The term unattached youth has been used to describe youth 14–24 years old, who are unemployed and not enrolled in school or any other form of a training institution (Human Employment and Resource Training (HEART) Trust-National Training Agency (NTA), 2009; James-Wilson, 2005). According to the International Monetary Fund (2009), Jamaica is an emerging and developing country with approximately 14% of the population living below the poverty line. Of those living in poverty, youth are disproportionately represented accounting for more than a quarter of the poor (Inter-American Development Bank, 2009). In a study of poverty and childhood outcomes in Jamaica, Smith and Ashiabi (2007) found that youth between the ages of 14 and 25 comprised 50% of the unemployed, with males having the highest percentage of unemployment and least schooling. With such high rates of poverty and all the social ills associated with living in poverty, the Jamaican Government provides several programs aimed at improving the educational and career opportunities for unattached youth. However, a major area that must be examined with unattached Jamaican youth is whether those who participate in these programs possess or are able to develop career decision self-efficacy (CDSE), which has been defined as an individual’s belief that he or she could successfully complete tasks necessary for making career decisions (Taylor & Betz, 1983). Based on Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social cognitive theory, the present study examined the role youth assets played in predicting increased CDSE in unattached Jamaican youth.

Unattached Jamaican Youth

The concept of unattached youth has been employed by some social scientists to respond to growing concerns about a multiplicity of youth challenges and problems (Fox, 2003). In Jamaica, about 145,000 youth “have become unattached from traditional vehicles for positive youth development such as schools, technical/vocational training schemes, entry level jobs or service learning opportunities” (James-Wilson, 2005, p. 2). Among unattached youth, 63% are female, 41% have never worked, 68% possess no academic qualifications (i.e., have not passed any academic exams), and 70% have no skill training (HEART Trust-NTA, 2009). The National Youth Service of Jamaica (NYS) is one of three main programs in the country aimed at providing services to unattached youth. The NYS operates a variety of programs designed to provide work experience for youth. The most prominent component of the NYS is the Corps Program, which targets unattached youth aged 17–24. The Corps Program is a month-long intensive entry level preparation program followed by a 6-month job internship, where participants are exposed to the world of work. In 2006, NYS trained 3,924 participants; this number was up from 1,163 in 2003. NYS capacity for 2008 was 4,200. The overall objective of the Corps Program is to provide employment and necessary workplace behavior to the youth of Jamaica.

Youth Assets

Several advocates have attempted to link the prevention of adolescent problem behavior with the development of specific youth assets, such as parent communication, peer role models, future aspirations, responsible choices, and nonparental adult role models (Oman et al., 2002). These advocates believe that increasing youth assets is critical for young people to become capable adults because they reduce youth risk behaviors, increase skills, and promote other positive outcomes. Specifically, Oman and his colleagues view youth assets as protective factors that reduce adolescents' participation in risk-taking behaviors such as sexual activity, drug and alcohol use, and school delinquency (Oman, Vesely, & Aspy, 2005; Oman, Vesely, Aspy, McLeroy, & Luby, 2004; Oman et al., 2007). In a 2005 study, Oman et al. examined the relationships between youth assets and youth risk behaviors for single- and dual-parent families in a multiethnic sample of inner-city teens. Results indicated that teens from single-parent homes were more likely to engage in a variety of risk behaviors, however, when these youth possessed particular assets, they were less likely to participate in aggressive and delinquent behaviors. Good family communication was associated with a decrease in all four problem behaviors examined in their study. Also, six other youth assets (nonparental adult role models, peer role models, use of time in groups/sports, responsible choices, community involvement, and future aspirations) were each significantly associated with a reduction in aggressive and delinquent behaviors for youth in single-parent homes. The work done by Oman and his colleagues lead us to believe that by exposing unattached Jamaican youth to more career options and enhancing career-decision skills, the Corps Program is expected to play an influential role in the development of positive youth assets.

Research on positive youth development has long emphasized how the presence of specific protective factors during adolescence was essential for decreased participation in risk behaviors (Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, & Turbin, 1995; Vesely et al., 2004). Advocates assert that increasing youth assets is critical for young people to become healthy and capable adults who lead productive lives. For example, Sirin, Diemer, Jackson, Gonsalves, and Howell (2004) suggested that the future aspirations and subsequent occupational attainment of adolescents of urban adolescents was connected to adolescents' access to community resources. In addition, the positive role of peers in providing everything from emotional support to academic guidance has been documented in the literature (Brendt & Keefe, 1995; Eccles, 1999). In a sample of Latino and European American early adolescents, Azmitia and Cooper (2001) found that when students perceived their peers as resources, these peer resources were positively related to school grades. However, what remains unclear is how youth assets are related to CDSE. If the presence of youth assets is related to decreased involvement in risk behaviors, then it would also be expected that youth assets will be related to greater adaptive behaviors such as making and following through with career decisions. According to Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social cognitive theory, expectations of personal efficacy are critical to the initiation and persistence of behavioral performance in all aspects of human development. People with high self-efficacy are not easily discouraged and remain persistent when faced with aversive or disconfirming experiences. Thus, unattached Jamaican youth that do not have belief in their abilities to succeed in a given career are less likely to be persistent in their career endeavors and are unlikely to benefit from the career preparation provided by the Corps Program.

Career Decision Self-Efficacy (CDSE)

As previously explained, CDSE represents the belief in one’s ability to successfully complete tasks necessary for making career decisions (Taylor & Betz, 1983). Although there have been some studies examining the CDSE in ethnic minority American and international adolescents and young adults (Chung, 2002; Flores, Ojeda, Huang, Gee, & Lee, 2006; Gushue & Whitson, 2006a, 2006b; Jin, Watkins, & Yuen, 2009), no studies found by the authors specifically addressed these issues with Jamaican youth. One study that utilized a sample of 11th- and 12th-grade Caribbean adolescents from the Bahamas indicated that students who attended private school, were in higher grade levels, and visited their school guidance counselor had higher levels of career decision-making skills (Rowland, 2004). Based on Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, the ability to posses mature career-decision skills was linked to a person’s confidence in successfully mastering specific behavioral task. Luzzo (1993) examined the connection between career decision-making self-efficacy and career decision-making attitudes and skills in a group of predominantly White undergraduate students and results indicated that career decision-making self-efficacy was not related to career decision-making skills. However, due to limited studies examining CDSE in Caribbean youth in general and Jamaican youth specifically, more studies are needed to address these concerns.

When examining CDSE in unattached Jamaican youth, it is important to utilize a theoretical framework that takes into account how personal and environmental factors work together to influence career decisions. One major theoretical perspective that has emerged when attempting to understand how people form interests, make choices, and achieve occupational success is the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994, 2000). SCCT is derived from Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and Betz and Hackett’s (1981) integration of Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy to the field of career development. SCCT examines how cognitive-person variables (i.e., self-efficacy) interact with aspects of the person and his or her environment (i.e., gender, ethnicity, social support) to influence career development. Bandura (1997) recognized that cultural values and practices affected how efficacy beliefs developed and the way they were exercised depending on the cultural background of the individual. Lent et al. (2000) suggested that the importance of cultural and contextual variables could not be overlooked when considering their influence over CDSE.

When considering personal variables, several studies have considered the influence gender and age have on a person’s CDSE. Early work emphasized how women’s lack of self-efficacy in many career-related behaviors led to restrictions in their career pursuits (Betz & Hackett, 1981). Mason (1994) suggested that when examining people with low occupational levels, women were more likely to aspire to lower occupational levels in part due to lower career aspirations. Later research also found that in a sample of high school juniors, male students demonstrated higher levels of CDSE in both control and treatment groups (Kraus & Hughey, 1999). As for age differences, Luzzo (1993) found a small but significant positive relationship between CDSE and age, which indicated self-efficacy expectations increased slightly with age. However, more recent studies have failed to find significant differences in CDSE based on gender and age differences (Chung, 2002; Flores et al., 2006; Hampton, 2006). Due to the lack of empirical evidence on the CDSE of unattached Jamaican youth, it is necessary to determine whether similar nonsignificant relationships between gender and age emerge for these youth.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine whether CDSE was predicted by higher levels of youth assets in unattached Jamaican youth that participated in the Corps Program and whether specific subscales of the Youth Asset Scale served as better predictors of CDSE. Participation in the Corps Program was expected to enhance youth development by providing more opportunities to develop positive youth assets and gain greater confidence in abilities to make choices related to better career outcomes. First, it was hypothesized that gender and age would not predict CDSE. Second, it was hypothesized that unattached youth that reported more assets would have higher levels of CDSE. In addition, the current study also examined whether specific youth assets for unattached Jamaican youth emerged as better predictors of CDSE when compared to the overall youth assets score.

Method

Participants

The sample consisted of 921 (60% females; 40% males) unattached Jamaican youth enrolled in a controlled trial to evaluate the efficacy of the Corps Program of the NYS. Jamaica is an English-speaking country, with 91% of the population being of African descent (CIA, 2008). The ages of participants in the sample ranged from 16 to 25 (M = 18.8) years. All participants were applicants to the NYS program and were informed of their eligibility to participate in the current study. Participants were provided informed consent forms and parental consent forms if under age 18, and compensated in Jamaican currency equivalent to US$30 to undertake a battery of assessments, including the two instruments described in the present study.

Measures

Demographics information was assessed using self-reported information on intake materials collected during enrollment, which included highest level of education completed, birth date, and participant’s gender. Gender was vector coded with one for females and two for males. Surveys were group administered during a one-week period of time.

Career decision self-efficacy-short form (CDSE-SF; Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996)

The CDSE-SF contains 25 items measuring the five career-choice competencies of Crites's (1978) model of career maturity, namely self-appraisal, gathering occupational information, goal selection, planning, and problem solving. Responses were obtained on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) No confidence at all to (5) Complete confidence. A total score was computed by summing the items with higher scores indicating greater levels of CDSE. Previous research samples have obtained internal consistency reliability coefficients ranging from 0.86 to 0.93 for the total score (Chung, 2002; Gushue & Whitson, 2006b). Cronbach’s coefficient α for CDSE in the present sample was .86.

Research using the CDSE included samples ranging from early adolescence (mean age = 12.51; Creed, Patton, & Prideaux, 2006) to later adolescence (mean age = 20.17; Chung, 2002). Research examining the CDSE-SF indicates that sample demographic characteristics influences underlying factor structures on the CDSE-SF differ between African American and European American students, but the overall internal consistency coefficients are consistent and relatively high (Chaney, Hammond, Betz, & Multon, 2007). These findings are consistent with Nilsson, Schmidt, and Meek’s (2002) reliability generalization study that indicates most dissertations and articles using the CDSE are based on samples of university students in the United States, but several have looked at populations from other nations and cultures. Evaluating the reported reliabilities between studies indicates that CDSE reliability ranges from .83 to .97 (M = .95), and the short form was comparable, albeit a bit more reliable (α range .92–.97; M = .94). In evaluating the samples, they conclude with a recommendation that the CDSE should be used with more diverse samples. Overall, research on the CDSE and CDSE-SF internal consistency indicates that coefficients of reliability do not meaningfully differ between previous research samples.

Youth Asset Survey—revised (YAS; Oman et al., 2002)

The YAS was used to measure environmental or contextual variables (imposed, selected, and constructed) supporting youth initiative, referred to as assets. These included family communication, presence of peer role models, future educational aspirations, making responsible choices, involvement in the community, good health practices related to exercise and nutrition, presence of nonparental adult role models, and use of time. The YAS was developed under funding from the US Center for Disease Control for adolescents residing in the United States. Modifications were made to 4 of the 38 items of the YAS to make it culturally appropriate for the Jamaican youth in the present sample (e.g., sports interests was worded to reflect popular sports activities in Jamaica with terms such as “football” instead of “soccer,” and “cricket” instead of “baseball,” and items specifically related to school participation were revised to reflect participation in other organizations since members of the sample were not in school). YAS items use a 4-point Likert scale for reporting, with 1 being the lowest score and 4 being the highest score. Oman et al. (2002) provided limited information assessing internal reliability and factorial validity for the total scale but did report Cronbach’s α coefficients and factor loadings for individual subscales on the YAS, ranging from .61 to .81, with interfactor correlations ranging from .74 to .96. Internal consistency reliability on the full scale of the YAS was .86 in the present sample, α reliabilities for each of the subscales were family communication = .71, presence of peer role models = .69, future educational aspirations = .32, making responsible choices = .47, involvement in the community = .74, good health practices related to exercise and nutrition (single item indicator), presence of nonparental adult role models = .61, and use of time = .75 (groups/sports = .69; religion = .67).

Individual subscales were summed and divided by the number of items in a section to create subscale scores. The authors of the YAS suggest dichotomizing subscale scores by use of a subscale mean to split the sample so that the nine subscales represent the possession of an asset (see for example, Oman et al., 2004, 2005). When following this suggestion, scores for the YAS range from 0 to 9 which represent the number of assets possessed by youth. This procedure can result in loss of variability and information about subjects, underestimates the strength of relationships, reduces statistical power, and dramatically increases the probability of a Type I error (Cohen, 1983; Maxwell & Delaney, 1993). In the absence of further research regarding the psychometric properties of the instrument using this type of scoring, we followed the author’s recommendations for the present study. However, since additional psychometric evaluation of the YAS is needed, we also used continuous subscale scores in a separate analysis.

Analysis

Data were screened for normality and missing data prior to use in multiple linear regression models. Correlations were first examined to determine whether each variable should be included in the subsequent regression models. Given the possible theoretical link between positive assets in career development and CDSE, we sought to identify the link empirically through a specific series of regression equations. In the first set of regression equations, gender, age, and a dichotomized and continuous total YAS score were the predictor variables and CDSE was the criterion variable. The next regression equation expanded the first two models by examining gender, age, and the separate subscales of the YAS as the predictor variables in order to verify the aforementioned link and determine the contribution of specific subscale measures to CDSE.

Results

Table 1 provides results that include both the dichotomized and continuous total YAS scores, gender, and age as predictors of CDSE scores in unattached Jamaican youth. The initial regression model (Model 1), which used the dichotomized total YAS scores, indicated that gender (β = –.14, p ≤ .001) and YAS total (β = .35, p ≤ .001) were both significant predictors of CDSE. Overall, the model was statistically significant (F _3,917 = 54.86, p < .001, R ² = .15, adjusted R ² = .15) and accounted for 15% of the variance in CDSE scores. The negative relation for gender indicates that female youth reported higher levels of CDSE scores. This test generated a medium size effect, where f ² = .18, based on Cohen’s (1988) suggested criteria. Effect size is a statistical concept that measures the strength of the relationship between two variables. According to Cohen, f ² is a measure of effect size for OLS regression where .02 is considered small, .15 medium, and .35 is a large effect.

Table 1.

Summary of Regression Model Direct Effects Predicting Career Decision Self-Efficacy in Unattached Jamaican Youth (N = 921)

	Variable
						CI
Model	B	SE	β	P	Part	Lower	Upper
Model 1^a
Constant	86.29	3.96				78.52	94.06
Gender	–3.16	.69	–.14	<.001	–0.15	–4.52	–1.80
Age	.33	.20	.05	.095	0.06	–0.06	0.71
YAS total	1.96	.17	.35	<.001	0.36	1.63	2.30
Model 2^b
Constant	94.20	3.96				86.44	101.96
Gender	–3.28	.71	–.14	<.001	–0.15	–4.67	–1.90
Age	.35	.20	.05	.081	0.06	–0.04	0.74
YAS total	.78	.08	.30	<.001	0.31	0.63	0.94

^a Model 1 includes YAS dichotomized subscales to create a total YAS scaled score (0–9).

^b Model 2 uses YAS continuous subscales to generate a total YAS score.

Model 1: R ² = .15; adjusted R ² = .15; SE = 10.26; df = (3, 917); F = 54.86; p < .000; f ² = .179.

Model 2: R ² = .12; adjusted R ² = .12; SE = 10.44; df = (3, 917); F = 42.52; p < .000; f ² = .139.

In contrast, the second model (Model 2) used the YAS total continuous scores, rather than the dichotomized scores, and obtained similar results. Results indicated that gender (β = –.14, p ≤ .001) and YAS total (β = .30, p ≤ .001) were both significant predictors of CDSE. While model–data fit decreased to 12%, the model remained statistically significant (F _3,917 = 42.52; p < .001, R ² = .12, adjusted R ² = .12). The observed effect size was still considered medium (f ² = .14).

Finally, we used the nine continuous YAS subscale scores as predictors in the model (see Table 2 ). This analysis yielded the most informative model and provided the best model fit for the data. Results indicated that gender (β = –.08, p ≤ .05), peer role models (β = .16, p ≤ .001), future aspirations (β = .10, p ≤ .01), responsible choices (β = .29, p ≤ .001), and nonparental adult role models (β = .07, p ≤ .05) were all significant predictors of CDSE. Overall, the model was statistically significant (F _11,909 = 21.11; p < .001, R ² = .20, Adjusted R ² = .19) and accounted for 19% of the variance in CDSE scores. The model yielded an effect that approached large criteria, where f ² = .26.

Table 2.

Regression Model Direct Effects Predicting Career Decision Self-Efficacy with all YAS Subscales (N = 921)

	Variable
						CI
	B	SE	β	p	Part	Lower	Upper
Constant	93.28	3.80				85.82	10.74
Gender	–1.81	.71	–.08	.011	–0.08	–3.21	–0.41
Age	.29	.19	.04	.138	0.05	–0.09	0.66
Family communication	–.28	.34	–.03	.41	–0.03	–0.94	0.38
Peer role models	1.86	.38	.16	<.001	0.16	1.11	2.60
Future aspirations	1.20	.38	.10	.002	0.10	0.45	1.94
Responsible choices	3.48	.40	.29	<.001	0.28	2.69	4.27
Community involvement	.04	.35	.00	.899	0.00	–0.64	0.73
Good health practices: exercise/nutrition	–.23	.38	–.02	.548	–0.02	–0.96	0.51
Use of time: groups/sports	.02	.36	.00	.951	0.00	–0.69	0.73
Use of time: religion	.28	.37	.02	.450	0.03	–0.44	0.99
Nonparental adult role models	.85	.40	.07	.033	0.07	0.07	1.63

R ² = .20; adjusted R ² = .19; SE = 9.98; df = (11, 909); F = 21.11; p < .000; f ² = .255.

Discussion

The current study examined the connection between two independent, but apparently related theoretical conceptions of youth development (assets) and CDSE in a sample of unattached Jamaican youth. The present study differs substantially from the majority of studies that have focused primarily on Caucasian American high school or college-attending youth (Chaney et al., 2007). Focusing on youth outside of the United States who were removed from both educational and work environments allowed for a greater understanding of how personal and environmental factors impact the CDSE of older adolescents and young adults from cultural backgrounds different from that of the United States. Overall, results indicated that gender and specific youth assets were the best predictors of CDSE in our sample of unattached Jamaican youth. This has important implications because it suggests that career development programs may need to be tailored to fit the needs of male and female participants, but most importantly, these programs may not have the desired impact if youth do not have specific protective factors that will allow them to take advantage of these programs.

Regression analysis indicated that overall youth assets were a positive and statistically significant predictor of CDSE in unattached Jamaican youth. However, further analysis revealed that the positive relation between youth assets and CDSE could be attributed to four of the nine YAS subscales which suggest that examining the composite YAS score is not necessarily indicative of CDSE. Unattached Jamaican youth appeared to benefit most when they had a positive view of their ability to make responsible choices, had higher future aspirations, and had positive peer and nonparental adult role models. The concept of human agency as described in Bandura’s social cognitive theory appears to be strongly hinged to youth in Jamaica and their sense of CDSE based on the importance of responsible choices and future aspirations in the model. Youth need to be provided with a sense of what they can do, and the extent to which they have control over their environment if they are to establish initiative toward their behavioral goals. Youth that make more responsible choices are better able to plan and take advantage of career developmental opportunities like the Corps Program. Also, as suggested by Sirin et al. (2004), the Corps Program may be viewed as a community resource that can increase the future aspiration of unattached youth by providing a means of achieving their career goals.

In addition, the presence of peer and nonparental role models making a significant contribution in unattached youths' level of CDSE is consistent with the literature. Unattached youth appeared to rely on peers to gain encouragement to pursue their career goals. Azmitia and Cooper (2001) suggested that peers of older adolescents had the ability to promote school achievement and help them stay on track for college. In our context, unattached youth rely on supportive peers as they attempt to gain confidence in their ability to successfully complete tasks necessary for making career decisions. At the same time, results indicated that Jamaican youth were also attentive to modeling by significant adults in their environment when making career choices or gaining confidence in their abilities to make those choices. Rowland (2004) suggested most children and adolescents were at a disadvantage when developing career identities because of limited access to various career role models. She found that Bahamian adolescents who relied on guidance counselors as significant adult role models had more confidence in their career decision-making skills. Gushue and Whitson (2006a) also indicated the importance of contextual supports from significant adults. Teacher support was positively related to CDSE and career outcome expectations. These and other studies provide support for our findings of the importance of role models, whether peers or other important adults, to help youth develop positive beliefs in their abilities to be successful when choosing careers and ultimately in their actual career behaviors.

Unexpectedly, results revealed significant gender differences in CDSE scores with female youth demonstrating higher levels. These findings are in contrast to most of the studies conducted with American youth that have found either no gender differences (Chung, 2002; Flores et al., 2006) or when differences have emerged samples primarily have found males to have higher levels of CDSE (Kraus & Hughey, 1999). When considering our Jamaican youth, it is possible that women may have greater CDSE due to the level of careers they are pursuing. In an emerging and developing country such as Jamaica, career opportunities, especially those that have high occupational levels, are limited. If males have a tendency to pursue careers with higher occupational levels, they may become discouraged by limited opportunities that may hinder their abilities to have confidence in their career abilities.

As expected, results of the current study indicated that age differences did not predict CDSE, which is similar to other studies that have examined high school and college age youth from other cultural backgrounds. CDSE in our cross-sectional sample appeared to be stable across this developmental period. A possible explanation as to why this study and many others have failed to find age differences in CDSE has to do with the restricted nature of the age groups most frequently examined. The majority of studies that have examined CDSE have focused on high school and college age adolescents and young adults. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (1963) suggests that adolescence is a time of exploration in which youth begin to develop a sense of self. Given the age range of interest in the present sample, it seems that during this period of exploration, many youth still have not narrowed down their career choices, thus preventing age to serve as a significant predictor of CDSE. Future studies should consider examining broader age groups or examine more extensive longitudinal studies to determine whether age differences actually play a role in the CDSE of youth.

Limitations

As with any study, some considerations need to be taken into account when examining the results from the current study. First, results suggested that only 20% of the variance in CDSE was accounted for in the regression model containing the YAS subscales. Future research should investigate the influence of other personal and external variables to the prediction of CDSE in unattached Jamaican youth. In addition, due to the high poverty rates and lack of educational and career opportunities for these youth, future studies need to also examine whether more mainstream youth in Jamaica have similar patterns of CDSE as unattached youth. Third, the current study was cross-sectional in nature, which limits our ability to make interpretations regarding the causality of CDSE. Future longitudinal studies are needed in order to better examine the causality of CDSE in Jamaican youth. Finally, due to lack of empirical studies with this particular group, more research is need to explore the reliability and validity of the CDSE measures as it relates to Jamaican youth.

Implications for Practice

A major implication of these findings is that career counselors and educators in Jamaica may need to develop gender-specific interventions for unattached youth. Although, many studies have not found gender differences in CDSE, most of these studies have not examined youth in developing countries. Real and/or perceived barriers to career opportunities, not present in more industrialized countries, may impact male and female youth differently, thus requiring gender-appropriate approaches to encourage all youth to excel in their given career. In addition, it is also important to determine whether unattached female youth in Jamaica have higher CDSE due to low career aspirations. Female and male youth need to be exposed to a variety of career options while receiving the necessary support to maintain persistence in their career of choice. Another implication for practice is the emphasis career counselors and educators should place on teaching youth to make responsible choices. Responsible choices predicted the most variance in CDSE, which underscores the need for programs to focus more on overall character development because it appears that youth that are able to make better choices may also be better prepared to stay persistent at their career goals. Along those lines, these interventions may need to begin earlier in life because acquiring tools for positive development should not wait until late adolescence or early adulthood. Finally, clinicians and program developers for youth and young adults should understand the importance of exposure to role models. Peers and nonparental adults likely provide highly credible sources (“models” within social cognitive theory) that subjects use to validate their choices and career trajectories. Models supply response-contingent reinforcement (Bandura, 1977, 1986) that can vicariously transmit response disinhibition for modeled career-decision behavior analogous to positive reinforcement for desired career-decision behavior. Youth development programs should therefore provide internships or exposure with other similar youth that have previously encountered success in career decisions or the positive youth development programs in which they are engaged.

Summary

Researchers have noted that a variety of interventions can be utilized to enhance the CDSE of youth. Interventions that improve students' confidence can lead to greater engagement and persistence in career exploration. It is the hope of Jamaican officials that students who are exposed to various academic and career opportunities through the Corps Program will gain greater confidence in their abilities, which will enhance their CDSE. This improved confidence will allow unattached youth to persist in career opportunities despite difficulties associated with living in low socioeconomic environments.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to L. O. Williams, J. K. Tindigarukayo, and D. Fearon, who managed and supervised the data collection process and administration of project staff at the Social Welfare Training Centre of the Open Campus, The University of the West Indies.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: This paper was written with financial support from the Inter-American Development Bank. The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Inter-American Development Bank.

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