Career Development for College Students With Asperger’s Syndrome

Abstract

An increasing number of students with Asperger’s syndrome are entering college today. Students with Asperger’s syndrome face complex symptomology such as difficulty with social skills, narrowed interests, sensory issues, and lack of self-awareness that may affect their ability to complete college and successfully enter the workforce. Career counselors could apply social cognitive career theory as an effective intervention when working with college students diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome. A case illustration is presented as an example.

Keywords

Asperger’s syndrome college students social cognitive career theory

Colleges and universities today are becoming increasingly diverse and are enrolling more students with disabilities than ever before. Approximately 11% of students attending postsecondary institutions are identified as having a disability (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2008). Smith (2007) reported that the number of college students with Asperger’s syndrome is on the rise. While the exact number of students with Asperger’s syndrome attending college is unknown, it is estimated that approximately 1 of the 150 adolescents have a diagnosis on the autism spectrum (Rice, 2009). In addition, males are more likely to receive this diagnosis (Fombonne, 1999). Although a vast amount of research exists on individuals with Asperger’s syndrome, very little focuses on career development.

The employment rates for people with disabilities in general are poor. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2011), only 17.8% of adults with a disability are employed, compared to 63.6% of people without a disability. People with a disability who are employed are more likely to work only part time and are less likely to work in management or professional occupations than those without a disability. Additionally, the unemployment rate for people with a disability is much higher than the national average, with 15% reporting unemployment in 2011 compared to 8.7% of workers without a disability (BLS, 2011). These statistics present a poor employment outlook for adults with any type of disability.

The employment outcomes for individuals with Asperger’s syndrome are similarly bleak. Adults with Asperger’s syndrome have difficulty locating and maintaining employment (e.g., Barnhill, 2007; Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004). Studies (Barnhill, 2007) show that adults with Asperger’s syndrome who do have jobs often hold positions that do not match their abilities. Jennes-Coussens, Megill-Evans, and Koning (2006) reported higher levels of unemployment in men aged 18–21 with Asperger’s syndrome. In a longitudinal study of young adults with Asperger’s syndrome, Cederlund, Hagberg, and Gillberg (2010) found about one quarter of participants had poor functional outcomes as adults, even though they had average to above average intelligence. Less than half completed their education and only about half were employed. This article describes the career issues of college students with Asperger’s syndrome and offers social cognitive career theory (SCCT) as a viable tool towards assisting these students.

Adolescents With Asperger’s Syndrome

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2004) details the characteristics of an individual with Asperger’s disorder as having difficulties in social interactions and continual patterns of behavior. Specifically, the DSM-IV-TR diagnosis requires social interaction impairment, display of repetitive behaviors, social or occupational disturbance, and lack of language and cognitive development delays. Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome develop average language skills but may not be able to navigate its social nuances. Paul, Orlovski, Marcinko, and Volkmar (2009) provided several examples of these difficulties including lack of eye contact, inability to take conversational turns, and unawareness of information disclosure (too much or too little). Social interaction difficulties are a primary symptom of Asperger’s syndrome.

Specific Symptoms Affecting Career

Because individuals with Asperger’s syndrome do not display cognitive deficits, many are able to meet college-entrance requirements (VanBergeijk, Klin, & Volkmar, 2008). Howlin (2003) found higher rates of postsecondary educational attainment in individuals with Asperger’s syndrome compared to individuals with other autism spectrum disorders. However, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome have several challenges that could potentially affect their career and educational development, especially in the college setting.

Increased social difficulty

Several researchers cite the social interaction difficulties in individuals with Asperger’s syndrome (Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004; Myles et al., 2007). Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome experience difficulty in interpreting emotional and nonverbal communication cues (Kuusikko et al., 2009; Semrud-Clikeman, Walkowiak, Wilkinson, & Minne, 2010), displaying empathy (Myles et al., 2007), and maintaining socially appropriate conversational norms (Paul, Orlovski, Marcinko, & Volkmar, 2009). Klin, Saulnier, and Sparrow (2007) determined students with Asperger’s syndrome have significant impairments in their social and communication abilities despite average to above average IQ scores. Although it is thought that language develops normally for individuals with Asperger’s syndrome, Howlin (2003) found that adults with Asperger’s syndrome performed poorly on language comprehension assessments. These impairments could affect the daily interactions between someone with Asperger’s syndrome and coworkers.

In addition, adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome reported higher levels of social anxiety (Kuusikko et al., 2008) and depression (Kanai et al., 2011). Anxiety levels increased as individuals with Asperger’s syndrome age, unlike typical adolescents, whose social anxiety decreases over time. Additionally, Whitehouse, Durkin, Jaquet, and Ziatas (2009) found adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome demonstrated lower friendship quality, lower motivation to cultivate friendships, higher levels of loneliness, and higher levels of depressive symptoms than typical peers. Students with Asperger’s syndrome also appear to struggle with understanding humor (Emerich, Creaghead, Grether, Murray, & Grasha, 2003). Difficult social interactions appear in various types of relationship for people with Asperger’s syndrome.

Social issues directly connect to workplace concerns. Workers must be able to connect with others, work both alone and in groups, receive supervision, and be able to solve conflicts. In a qualitative study on the social challenges faced by adults with Asperger’s syndrome, Muller, Schuler, and Yates (2008) learned that these adults were aware of their social difficulties, citing feelings of isolation, communication challenges, desire for more intimate relationships, and concerns about creating social connections. Another study (Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004) focused on employment of adults with Asperger’s and found similar themes, including interpersonal communication problems and not understanding the social norms in the workplace as major issues. Desivilya and Eizen (2005) explored group conflict and its relationship to social self-efficacy and noted that participants with higher social self-efficacy beliefs tended to engage in more productive conflict management behaviors. Similarly, DeWitz, Woolsey, and Walsh (2009) found a positive relationship between social self-efficacy and purpose in life. These results suggest that young adults with Asperger’s are aware of their social struggles and that adults who view themselves as socially inept may have more difficulty navigating social interactions or finding their niche in the workplace.

Narrow interests

Adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome often demonstrate highly focused, narrow interests (Hurlbutt & Handler, 2010). These interests often dominate conversations with others, causing even higher levels of social isolation. Cederlund et al. (2010) determined that parents of sons with autistic spectrum disorders (including Asperger’s syndrome) reported that narrow interests created more significant problems than their sons believed. In other words, the students themselves were not aware of the issues resulting from their highly focused interests. The specific interests that adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome develop are likely to become more noticeable as they get older due to improvements in communication (South, Ozonoff, & McMahon, 2005). Often, conversations that individuals with Asperger’s syndrome initiate may be focused on their specific interests and may interfere with ability to focus on other tasks or topics.

Although narrow interests might appear to be a positive trait for career exploration, sometimes these beliefs can interfere with career decision making. Students with Asperger’s syndrome may be unwilling to broaden their interests beyond a single career option or may be unable to accept alternate points of view about their interest of choice (Winter-Messiers, 2007). Young adults with Asperger’s syndrome reported feeling positive about themselves when they were able to demonstrate their expertise related to their special interest area, even when they felt negatively about themselves in general (Winter-Messiers, 2007). So, these narrowed interests can affect social interactions due to their unwillingness to discuss anything beyond their area of expertise.

Sensory issues

Adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome typically demonstrate sensory issues as well (South et al., 2005). They may react negatively to loud noises, increased visual stimuli, or tactile stimulation. Adolescents may resort to extreme behaviors to avoid particular stimuli (Myles et al., 2007). In addition, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome may engage in repetitive behaviors such as rocking or hand flapping. Parents reported that repetitive behaviors were the most challenging aspect of raising a child with Asperger’s syndrome (South et al., 2005). Sensory issues may also be related to routines or repetitive daily patterns, making transitioning to new activities or tasks difficult for these individuals.

Some studies have noted that individuals with Asperger’s syndrome display poor fine and gross motor skills, as well as weak visual motor skills (Lopata, Volker, Hamm, Sowinski, & Thomeer, 2007). Lee and Park (2007) found students with Asperger’s syndrome have motor skills deficits, including hypersensitivity and poor coordination. Although this is not part of the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 2004), it is recognized by the ICD-10 as a distinguishing feature of Asperger’s syndrome (World Health Organization, 1992). Tasks that require high levels of coordination or physical precision may be more difficult for adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome.

Difficulties with sensory skills may also affect the career outlook of students with Asperger’s syndrome. For example, discomfort with lighting may result in increased self-stimulation behaviors, potentially leading to disruption in the workplace. Many workplace settings, such as loud rooms or crowded or busy offices, may negatively affect workers with Asperger’s syndrome and make it difficult for them to complete their work. Also, poor coordination may result in elimination of careers that require advanced fine or gross motor skills. Sensory deficits may also negatively affect art and writing skills (Griffin, Griffin, Fitch, Albera, & Gingras, 2006), again causing potential career-related concerns.

Self-awareness

Dritschel et al. (2010) discovered that adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome often believe they lacked expertise on understanding their own internal mental state or feelings. Adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome also report difficulty determining their own needs (Myles et al., 2007). Cederlund et al. (2010) compared young males with Asperger’s syndrome and parental responses on their perspective of their social interactions. The individuals with Asperger’s syndrome were less likely to report the severity of their social interaction problems, indicating a lack of awareness. Students with Asperger’s syndrome also struggle with problem solving, particularly related to the effectiveness of their chosen solutions (Channon et al., 2001). Lack of self-awareness poses an issue for career exploration because individuals need to be able to express personal interests, values, and skills.

College students with Asperger’s syndrome display unique and somewhat challenging symptomology that may have detrimental impact on his or her career decision-making process. Rogers, Creed, and Glendon (2010) explored personality traits that impacted career development. Conscientiousness and openness to new experiences increased likelihood of engaging in the career-planning process. Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome are less likely to engage in new experiences thus decreasing likelihood of engaging in career planning.

Based on previous research, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome have unique difficulties with social interaction, sensory issues, and self-awareness. Additionally, these individuals tend to display highly focused areas of interest. This article presents a novel approach to working with college student with Asperger’s syndrome and their career needs. As the rates of individuals with Asperger’s syndrome continue to rise in postsecondary institutions, the authors suggest using SCCT (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) with this population.

SCCT

SCCT provides a framework for the processes through which career interests develop, how interests and other variables lead to career-relevant choices, and how people reach different levels of performance in their career development (Lent & Brown, 1996). According to this theory, personal attributes, environmental factors, and behavior interact and influence one another. Individuals regulate these features through three factors: self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and personal goals (Lent et al., 1994). Self-efficacy beliefs refer to “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Outcome expectations refer to beliefs about the outcomes of behaviors; behaviors are in turn influenced by self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Lent & Brown, 1996). Goals are defined as the intent to engage in a certain activity to produce a particular outcome (Bandura, 1986).

In SCCT, interest in an activity is thought to be the result of related positive learning experiences (Lent et al.,1994). These positive experiences strengthen self-efficacy beliefs related to the activity, creating an increasingly self-sustaining loop, where related activities are sought out because they tend to result in a positive outcome, thereby increasing self-efficacy and interest in the activity (Lent et al., 1994). For students with Asperger’s syndrome, their narrow ranges of interest lead to seeking experiences related to the interests and heightened self-efficacy for their activity. Therefore, linking of learning experiences and self-efficacy related to interests and career goals, as is done in SCCT, makes this approach helpful when working with students with Asperger’s syndrome.

SCCT and Asperger’s Syndrome

Traditional career approaches often use interest inventories as a primary method of increasing client self-knowledge. Results are then used to help link interests with career options. Because of their unique issues, students with Asperger’s syndrome often need additional assistance beyond interest identification. For example, sessions focused on social skills beliefs, perceived barriers to career success, and how to broaden extremely narrow interests may be helpful for these students.

Therefore, the unique focus of SCCT on self-efficacy beliefs may benefit this population more than other career theory foci. In the case of college students with Asperger’s syndrome, a major focus might be social self-efficacy. Researchers (Muller, Schuler, & Yates, 2008) noted the lower levels of social self-efficacy beliefs in these students and described how these beliefs can make finding and keeping a career difficult. Anderson and Betz (2001) indicated that past performance and emotional arousal most commonly predicted levels of social self-efficacy, suggesting that new experiences in counseling might focus on these types of learning. Therefore, raising social self-efficacy beliefs through helping students with Asperger’s syndrome recognize their emotional responses to social situations while also introducing new, potentially positive social actions might indirectly affect career development and entry.

SCCT also offers the option to build on career interests through the development of goals based on self-efficacy, outcome beliefs, and interests. Counselors following this approach can build on the narrow interests held by students with Asperger’s syndrome while also helping them broaden their perspectives on the world of work. Winter-Messiers (2007) noted the importance of focusing on special interest areas as a way to build social skills, using a topic already exciting to the student as a way to help them connect positively with others. Researchers regularly use SCCT when discussing the career development of college students (Brown et al., 2008; Rogers, Creed, & Glendon, 2010), at-risk populations (e.g., Gibbons & Borders, 2010; Morris, Shoffner, & Newsome, 2009), and people with other disabilities (e.g., Hampton & Mason, 2003; Hutchinson, Versnel, Chin, & Munby, 2008). To date, however, no one has applied this approach to college students with Asperger’s syndrome, and little to no articles exist on career development in general for these students. To demonstrate the effective use of SCCT with college students with Asperger’s syndrome, a fictional case illustration is presented.

Case Illustration

Kevin is a 19-year-old Caucasian male referred to the college counseling center for career-related issues. His advisor encouraged him to come because he recognized Kevin’s extraordinary talent in the field of accounting, but was concerned because he notices significant issues when Kevin has to work with his peers in group projects. Kevin produces almost flawless work; however, his overall grade is mediocre due to poor group participation and presentation grades. Kevin reports he has several friends he has met over the internet with whom he participates in online gaming activities.

Kevin discloses he was diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome in elementary school. After his diagnosis, his parents enrolled him in a variety of small group interventions to promote social skills. Until he graduated from high school, he also received occupational therapy several times a week to assist him with sensory-related issues. As a result of the time spent in supportive services, Kevin has no prior work experiences. He reports he is aware his diagnosis affects his interactions with others, but also notes that he just needs to find people with similar interests.

Before coming into the career counseling center, Kevin took an online interest inventory which resulted in no dominant theme codes. However, very high levels of interest were present in fields relating to computer industry and data entry, indicating very narrow interests. The counselor probed Kevin regarding these interests, and Kevin stated he enjoyed working on computers for pleasure. Kevin described, in great detail, the success he experienced in his computer-related high school courses and how he actively participated in the Computer and Electronics Club.

He also explained how he and his online friends have started creating their own game over the Internet. Throughout the conversation, the counselor observed that Kevin rarely made direct eye contact and that he continually tapped his pencil when speaking. He also appeared uncomfortable in his chair, perching on the end of it rather than sitting in a relaxed manner. Nonetheless, he spoke for a lengthy period of time about computers, indicating his excitement for the topic.

When questioned why he had discarded computer-related areas of study, Kevin shrugged and stated he did not know what opportunities were available. Rather than discourage Kevin from his unique interests in computers, the counselor worked with Kevin to explore the computer-related programs that the college had to offer. The counselor used the new learning experiences as a way to raise Kevin’s career self-efficacy beliefs, a core facet of SCCT. This session also provided the counselor information regarding Kevin’s outcome expectations related to a career in computers.

During the second session, the counselor recognized that the session needed to focus on issues beyond interests and career knowledge. Therefore, the counselor asked Kevin to complete a career card sort activity, so they could begin to identify perceived barriers and supports related to career choices. The card sort included careers representing various job options. Kevin sorted the cards into piles based on the likelihood he would choose the career. Kevin outright rejected most of the career cards, although he placed math- and computer-related jobs in the “uncertain” column. Many of the careers Kevin rejected were based in the helping professions or required significant interpersonal skills. Kevin discussed his need for solitude at work and explained he did not want to be responsible for anyone else. He felt that needing to socialize regularly at work would be a barrier to career success. He also admitted not understanding many of the options, stating he had limited knowledge about work in general. He acknowledged his expertise in computers and math as strengths, and pointed to his academic advisor as a source of support. Again, the counselor focused on raising career self-efficacy through discussion and explanations about various careers.

The counselor also explored the impact that Kevin’s diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome might have on career. Kevin described his fear about being able to be successful due to his interpersonal and sensory issues. He noted his difficulty connecting with others and mentioned not knowing anyone with Asperger’s syndrome who was in the workplace. He did, however, explain that his parents were supportive and that his professors seemed to care about his future success. At this point, the counselor shifted to building on social self-efficacy beliefs. To do this, the counselor further explored the connection between social skills and the world of work. Together, they framed social skills as a perceived barrier to career entry. They also began identifying ways to reduce this barrier by increasing support systems. Kevin noted that he did have a positive relationship with one of his professors and that past social skill building activities seemed somewhat successful for him. The counselor mentioned a gaming club that was sponsored by the Student Union as a potential social activity.

In addition, the counselor suggested Kevin participate in a job shadowing opportunity offered by the Office for Students with Disabilities. This opportunity would offer the chance to meet a worker with Asperger’s syndrome and possibly reduce this perceived barrier. She suggested that these new experiences might create positive outcomes related to career. Specifically, these experiences would hopefully increase Kevin’s self-efficacy and enhance positive outcome expectations, core components of SCCT.

Kevin entered the third session discussing the job shadowing experience. He explained he was paired with a man also diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome. This individual obtained a degree in accounting, but instead of working for a large firm, he went into business for himself and ran a small bookkeeping business. He hired another individual to be responsible for obtaining contracts and promoting the business. Kevin realized he would be able to make some accommodations in his workplace that would allow him to work under more desired circumstances. Kevin explained that the experience also helped him realize that he wanted a more “hands-on” career and that he was beginning to doubt accounting. He also related his participation in the gaming club was going well, and that he actually went to lunch with one of the members. They discussed these new learning experiences and their overall effect on Kevin’s social self-efficacy and career outcome expectations. Kevin recognized that introducing new, positive social situations while also being aware of the feelings these situations aroused in him helped him identify the more positive aspects of social interactions. He noted that he still preferred solitary activities, but was beginning to understand the importance of connecting with others related to the world of work. He also mentioned that talking to someone else with Asperger’s syndrome increased his beliefs that he could be successful in the world of work.

During the last appointment, Kevin and the career counselor discussed what Kevin had learned from a follow-up with his advising. His advisor encouraged Kevin to consider other majors more related to his interests in computers. Kevin stated that he planned to take several computer programming courses next semester and to further investigate the majors that focused on computers. He also noted that social skills would continue to be a daunting issue for him, but recognized that when he tried to interact with others, he could be somewhat successful. As a result of counseling, Kevin demonstrated an increased sense of social self-efficacy, reduced career barriers, and increased belief in his ability to be successful in the world of work.

Implications for Counselors and Student Services Personnel

College students with Asperger’s syndrome may have difficulty with career planning due to the symptoms related to their diagnosis. Problems with social interaction, circumscribed interests, and repetitive behaviors may make career selection and entry difficult. Barnhill (2007) reported the need for new intervention strategies related to employment for students with Asperger’s syndrome. SCCT can be a successful tool when working with these college students.

Because SCCT encourages clients to focus on the internal and external barriers to career development (Lent et al., 1994), students with Asperger’s syndrome can be encouraged to look at the personal challenges they may face as a result of their disability. For example, Kevin discussed his preferences for working in more solitary environments and his overall social anxiety. Counselors can then help students develop new skills that address these perceived challenges and ultimately raise social self-efficacy. In Kevin’s case, informational interviews, role plays, homework, and advising meetings were used to reduce barriers to career success.

College students with Asperger’s syndrome need the opportunity to evaluate their career outcome expectations. For Kevin, he feared failure in a career even if he successfully completed college. One idea is to utilize a balance sheet (Brown & Lent, 1996) to determine the potential positive and negative outcomes in regard to career. A balance sheet might be a more effective approach because individuals with Asperger’s syndrome need concrete information. In the case illustration, the counselor utilized online resources to give descriptive work setting descriptions and scheduled a shadowing experience to facilitate learning new possible outcomes.

Counselors also work with clients to further explore their career interests. For clients with Asperger’s syndrome, some of these interests might be well pronounced, but may not be linked to their career goals. Kevin was obviously interested in computers, but lacked knowledge of career options related to this interest. Winter-Messiers, Herr, and Wood (2007) advocated a strengths-based approach when working with clients with a special interest area. In other words, rather than encouraging broader interests, counselors might instead try building on the narrow interests by introducing related careers and identifying strengths resulting from that special interest area.

If counselors utilize an interest inventory with these students, then the results may be flat because of the narrow scope of the client’s interests. Graetz and Spampinato (2008) suggested identifying careers that matched the specific interests of students with Asperger’s syndrome. Counselors might determine how the interests translate into the world of work. An alternative might be to use a career card sort as described in the case illustration. This approach allows the counselor the opportunity to explore why specific careers were discarded or disliked, rather than receiving an overall interest profile. Kevin was able to identify that careers that required extensive personal contact hours and care were not a fit.

Recommendations for Future Research

Due to the increase of young adults with Asperger’s syndrome attending college, career counselors need information regarding evidence-based practices for this population. There is little empirical information regarding successful career outcome of adults with Asperger’s syndrome. This research could provide valuable information for tailoring career counseling and services for young adults with Asperger’s syndrome. The SCCT model needs to be further validated and investigated to better understand the relationships between SCCT factors with this unique population. Specifically, the factors of self-efficacy and outcome expectations could be examined to determine their impact on career interests and goals.

Conclusion

It is important that career counseling with individuals with Asperger’s syndrome is unique to each client (Smith, 2007). In general, counselors can make appropriate accommodations so that their client’s with Asperger’s syndrome may fully engage in the counseling session. As more students with Asperger’s syndrome are entering college, counselors need to be aware of their unique career development needs.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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