Exploring the Contextual Influences on Adolescent Career Identity Formation: A Qualitative Study of Hong Kong Secondary Students

Abstract

This paper draws on Marcia and Porfeli’s identity status models to examine the relationship between adolescent career identity formation and its contextual aspects. Focus group interviews were conducted with 26 students at two Hong Kong senior secondary schools. It was found that most participants exhibited the career identity statuses of achievement, searching moratorium, or moratorium towards the end of school. Influences that were identified from family, school, and social culture varied across individuals with different career identity statuses. By reporting the findings from an East Asian school setting, the paper provides theoretical and practical implications for career development for senior secondary school students.

Keywords

career/vocational education/guidance research content areas vocational identity high school students sample populations qualitative methods research methods career development stages

Introduction

Career development is a process of constructing, shaping, and reshaping the self as a worker across the life course (Porfeli & Lee, 2012). Adolescence is usually identified as the stage when the process of career identity formation begins (Crocetti & Meeus, 2015). As defined by Meijers (1998, p. 191), career identity is “a structure of meanings in which the individual links his own motivation, interest and competencies with acceptable career roles.” Adolescents gradually engage in the tasks of exploring career alternatives and considering the career roles to which they will commit in the future (Porfeli & Lee, 2012).

Among the theories that attempt to explain the process of adolescent career identity formation (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011), identity status models that were originally proposed by Marcia (1966) and those extended from Marcia’s model have been extensively employed to understand the key psychological process in career identity formation (Melgosa, 1987). Empirical studies examined the psychometric properties of career identity statuses (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012), developmental patterns of adolescent career identity (Hirschi, 2012), and correlates of identity statuses with other career developmental aspects (Rhee, Lee, Kim, Ha, & Lee, 2016). What remains underresearched is how the interplay of various contextual elements affects individuals’ career identity formation (Gross, 2004).

Identity Status Models

Among the first empirical operationalization of Erikson’s (1950, 1968) seminal work, Marcia (1966) defines identity in two dimensions, namely, exploration and commitment. Exploration describes an individual’s engagement in searching among meaningful alternatives, while commitment indicates an individual’s decision to adopt certain values and goals (Kroger, 2007). According to the degree of exploration and commitment, four identity statuses are defined: achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. Marcia’s model has been used to investigate individuals’ overall sense of identity and domain-specific identities (Solomontos-Kountouri & Hurry, 2007). In relation to career identity, achievement adolescents have examined career choices and have set clear career goals. Moratorium individuals are actively exploring different possibilities but have not committed to a specific occupation. Foreclosure adolescents have prematurely decided on a career goal before experiencing any significant career exploration. Such a commitment is usually based on the expectations of parents or other authorities rather than a self-directed choice. Diffusion individuals rarely express interest in any particular occupation or proactively engage in exploration activities. They may mention some career goals but cannot articulate them.

Recently, researchers have revised the model by defining the subscales of exploration and commitment and adding new dimensions (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008; Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, Beyers, & Vansteenkiste, 2005). By focusing on the occupational domain, Porfeli and his colleagues have extended the model into three dimensions: commitment, exploration, and reconsideration of commitment (Porfeli & Lee, 2012; Porfeli, Lee, Vondracek, & Weugikd, 2011; Porfeli & Savickas, 2012). The new dimension, reconsideration of commitment, refers to individuals who have established a career commitment but are maintaining a flexible attitude toward it or individuals who are experiencing self-doubt about the current commitment (Porfeli & Lee, 2012). The revised framework comprises five occupational identity statuses: the first four align with Marcia’s four identity statuses, and a fifth status, searching moratorium, falls between the achievement and moratorium statuses. Searching moratorium individuals are inclined to express a combination of commitments to certain career goals and flexibility in exploring other possibilities (Porfeli et al., 2011).

Contextual Influences on Career Identity Formation

The review of the extant literature suggests that several contextual aspects affect young people’s career identity formation. Family and parental influence on adolescent identity statuses has been well recognized in the literature (Rogers, Creed, & Praskova, 2016). Research has revealed that foreclosure individuals are determined by parents’ firm control, and achievement individuals are predicted by parental orientation to certain values and ideologies (Lam & Tam, 2011). The family’s socioeconomic status (SES) is positively related to adolescent occupational identity statuses (Solomontos-Kountouri & Hurry, 2007). School is a second source of influence on adolescent identity formation through connecting individuals’ values with ideological views of a society (Flum & Kaplan, 2012). Research has reported intervention programs that effectively directed diffusion students into career exploration activities (Schwartz, Kurtines, & Montgomery, 2005). Individual guidance that encourages communication between individuals and other important persons in the context of close relationships predicts an achievement career identity (Lopez, 2001). The reality of a society in a certain era is a third source of influence on one’s construct of meaning of which occupation deserves commitment. Available opportunities in various economic sectors provide a picture of career opportunities and barriers (Hoare, 2013) which direct individuals adjust to personal career goals (Solomontos-Kountouri & Hurry, 2007). The cultural values of a society may affect one’s career decision-making pattern (Hoare, 2013). Eryigit and Kerpelman (2011) compared identity processing styles and career identities of young people from the United States and Turkey. The results revealed that a strong authoritarian culture in Turkey did not support young people’s freedom in making career choices and the Turkish economic structure limited the range of career possibilities.

Chinese Adolescent Career Identity Development

Previous research has examined Chinese high school and college students’ ego identity (Lam & Tam, 2011; Wang, Chen, & Shi, 2008) and the relationship between college students’ overall sense of identity and their career development (Yang & Lin, 1998), while domain-specific examination of career identity statuses has not received equal attention as yet.

The present study obtained cross-cultural insights from the respective research into Chinese students’ career development and their ego identity formation. Individualism versus collectivism is one dimension that previous research has addressed. A few studies have reported that undergraduate students from mainland China and Taiwan are inclined to interpret the meaning of work as the sustaining of family well-being and repayment for parental nurturance rather than perceiving it as individuals’ self-actualization (Lee, Beckert, & Goodrich, 2010; Zhou, Leung, & Li, 2012). In holding a strong Confucian value of filial piety, mainland Chinese students are more likely to respond to parents’ expectations rather than personal career interests (Hou & Leung, 2011). Mainland Chinese students even change their career choices after comparison with peers’ career decisions (Li, Hou, & Jia, 2015). In contrast, most students from Hong Kong consider career options according to personal interest and competence (Leung & Hou, 2005; Leung et al., 2014).

A strong emphasis on educational competition and examinations is another characteristic of Chinese culture (Ho, 2004). After studying highly selective schools in Mainland China, Song (2012) reported that students with outstanding and moderate academic achievement were dedicated to academic study rather than other activities. Less is known, however, about the identity development of less able students within a highly competitive culture.

The Hong Kong Context

For two reasons, contemporary Hong Kong creates an interesting context in which to investigate how the three contextual aspects—cultural values, the school’s culture of learning, and family—contribute to adolescent career identity formation.

First, Hong Kong is a meeting point of Chinese and Western cultures. Hong Kong was a British colony until the transfer of sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China in 1997. Growing up in a context where people hold Chinese values and enjoy Western values, Hong Kong adolescents may exhibit its uniqueness in balancing or conflicting with various values in forming their career identity. For example, being obedient to authorities versus self-control in personal development and prioritizing personal interests versus considering collectivist outcomes. Examination of a sample of Chinese students will provide cross-cultural evidence of the validity of identity status models which are rooted in Western culture and in which self-direction is the key in the identity process (Phinney & Baldelomar, 2010).

Second, vocational and technical education used to be a small sector in Hong Kong’s education system, since the pursuit of academic excellence was entrenched among different stakeholders and most students followed an academic-orientated curriculum (Morris, 1996). School career guidance was criticized in that students were empowered with limited freedom to choose occupations and that educational experience was rarely connected to the world of work (Leung, 2002). Career education has been an essential component of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum in Hong Kong since its implementation in 2009 (Curriculum Development Council, 2009). The present study examines the changing initiatives in career education in Hong Kong, and contingent career guidance activities are suggested accordingly.

The present study will fill the gap by examining a sample of Hong Kong adolescents’ career identity statuses and investigating how they perceived the contextual aspects of career identity formation. Two research questions are investigated: (1) What are the career identity statuses of adolescents toward the end of school in Hong Kong? (2) How do contextual elements influence Hong Kong adolescents’ career identity formation?

Method

The present study is an attempt to examine adolescent career identity and the related contextual influences by interviewing 26 students in secondary six (Grade 12, age 17–18) from two schools in Hong Kong, China. The data collected through focus group interviews were derived in a project entitled “Preparing urban youth for further study and careers: an international study involving Hong Kong” (hereafter called “ISCY-HK project”), supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (GRF 843212; Lee, 2017; Lee & Ho, n. d.). These two schools served as a proxy for the larger social environment as reflected by the socio-economic status (SES) of the student intake and encompassed other contexts, such as family. The present study employed focus group interviews to exemplify the diversity of participants’ career identity statuses and influential elements.

Schools and Participants

School A is a boys’ school and is fully subsidized by the local government. The school has consistently produced students who excel in public examinations. Career education in School A intends to guide students to make right choices among higher education institutions and prospective majors in university. General life skills and career preparation guidance are also provided. School B is an aided coeducation school. Students have lower academic abilities, and most graduates are admitted to vocational and technical training programs. Various career guidance activities, such as career seminars, site visits, practical skills in job hunting, and career aptitude tests, have been implemented in the school.

Ten male students in School A and 16 students (9 female and 7 male) in School B participated in the study. Participants were recommended by school career guidance teachers according to the diversity of students’ career aspirations. Those who showed a willingness to join the focus group were interviewed. Pseudonyms were used for all participants reported in the current article.

Data Collection

Two focus group interviews were conducted in School A with five students in a group. Four focus group interviews were conducted in School B with four students in a group. The participants in each school was homogeneous in the sense that they shared similar social and economic backgrounds and school experience. This composition meets the rule of commonality in selecting focus group participants (Stewart & Shamdasani, 1990).

Before a group interview, participants completed a short survey to collect their demographic information and related experience in career development. The interviews were then facilitated by one moderator, the first author of the present article, and noted down by one assistant moderator, the senior research assistant who worked in the project team. The assistant moderator helped to minimize the moderator bias by recording and observing the discussion, asking follow-up questions, and debriefing with the moderator after each focus group. The conversations were in Chinese; they were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim in Chinese, with individual participants’ utterances identified. The Chinese transcripts then served as the basis for the analysis, and the final selected quotations were translated into English. The difference between English and Chinese speech was noted during the translation and the Chinese expressions were retained as close to the original as possible.

The professional domain of the two widely used identity interview protocols—the Identity Status Interview (ISI; Marcia, 1966) and the Flensburg Identity Status Interview (FISI; Hauber, 2007)—served as the basis for developing the interview guide of the present study. The ISI addresses the two identity dimensions of exploration and commitment and examines the domains of religious, political, and occupational identities. The FISI extends the identity domains to education, profession, region, and lifestyle. The occupational domain in the ISI and the professional domain in the FISI share similar questions that tap into career identity. The main questions are laid out here: What are your present career goals? What other opportunities existed? To what extent did your parents or other important people influence your choices? Is it possible that you would change your career goal in the future?

The ISI has been validated in various studies (Josselson, 1987; Kroger, 1988). Researchers have also applied the ISI to compare the ego identity of Asian, Asian/Caucasian, and Caucasian college students (Grove, 1991), to identify the ethnic domain of identity of Asian American high school students (Phinney, 1989), and to explore how Chinese advisor teachers impacted the ego identity of high school students who constantly violated rules (Lee, 2010). The FISI has been mainly employed in ego identity studies in the European context (Hauber, 2007), while a recent study reported how the FISI was adapted to a sample of Hong Kong high school students to unpack their moral and civic identity statuses (Xu & Yang, 2017). The present study adapted the two protocols by adding subquestions under each main question to make explicit the participants’ inner state of career identity. The adapted protocol was translated into Chinese and checked by four researchers who are familiar with career development studies and have good proficiency in Chinese and English languages. The adapted protocol was tested in a pilot school, revised, and finally used in the main study.

In regard to influential elements, an open question (What elements have you considered in choosing a career?) was used to elicit participants’ views on contextual influences, followed by subquestions that investigated specific aspects of context, such as to what degree do different elements, such as parents, peers, teachers, school career guidance activities, and job opportunities, affect your career exploration and choices?

The group dynamics taking place during the interpersonal interaction in a focus group are central to the success of reaching data saturation (Sim, 1998). To guarantee a safe climate for sharing, the moderator prior to the interview stressed the equal importance of each participant’s experience and views thereafter to be shared. During the interview, the moderator first raised a question, the participants were then invited to share their individual experiences one by one, and afterward all group members expressed their supplemental views and experience after hearing the opinions of others. Whenever a different view appeared, the moderator identified the importance of the point and then encouraged the participants to explain further with concrete examples.

Data Analysis

Constant comparative analysis (Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson, Leech, & Zoran, 2009) was employed in the present study. In the first stage, each student was analyzed to decide their identity statuses. When the action of exploration was present, the participant was assigned a score of “1” for exploration; when a firm commitment was present, the participant was assigned a score of “1” for commitment; when a participant had set a career goal but was currently reviewing the goal and considering alternative choices, the participant was assigned a score of “1” for reconsideration of commitment. The status was finally decided according to the features laid out in Table 1. When coding influential elements, an individual participant’s interpretation of the important elements was related to the features of each identity status.

Table 1.

Criteria for Five Identity Statuses.

	Identity Dimensions
Identity Statuses	Exploration	Commitment	Reconsideration of Commitment
Achievement	1	1	—
Searching moratorium	1	Absent	1
Moratorium	1	Absent	—
Foreclosure	Absent	1
Diffusion	Absent	Absent	—

Note. Adapted from Marcia (1980).

The first author analyzed a subset of the transcripts and generated a list of codes and quotations that exhibited the features of each career identity status. The second author then read the codes and quotations to confirm or disconfirm the analysis. The discrepancy that occurred mainly focused on the coding criteria for the dimension of reconsideration of commitment. After repeated comparison and discussion, the two criteria for reconsideration of commitment were agreed between the two researchers: An interviewee had presented both a commitment to a specific occupation and a flexible attitude to the alternatives. Finally, a set of codes was generated to analyze the remaining transcripts.

In the second stage, comparative analysis was conducted across the participants. Labels describing the same identity status with the same impact of contextual elements were grouped. Finally, the participants from the two schools were compared, and a logical chain of evidence was built to critically examine the identity statuses of the participants and how each of the contextual elements varied in influence across the participants.

Results

On interviewing 26 secondary six students, most participants were found to show a career identity in the three statuses of achievement, searching moratorium, or moratorium, with individuals’ career identity status being assigned based upon the presence or absence of the three identity dimensions: exploration, commitment, and reconsideration of commitment. The initial data analysis showed that the influences of family members, school career guidance, and social culture varied among individuals. When the cross-sectional analysis was conducted, schools were found to be a proxy that encompassed the three sources of contextual influence: family SES backgrounds, a social culture emphasizing academic attainment and educational competition, and school differences in the provision of career guidance activities. Thus, the remainder of this section presents a detailed analysis of participants’ career identity statuses and their perceived influential elements in each school.

School A

Four achievement, three moratorium, one foreclosure, and two diffusion individuals were identified from School A. The four achievement individuals had made their decisions to become a doctor, a solicitor, a chemist, and a tutor in tutorial schools, respectively. As defined, the achievement individuals have experienced the process of in-breadth and/or in-depth career exploration (criterion: presence of past exploration) and have made a career decision (criterion: presence of commitment). Each of the achievement participants in School A provided details of their target career, including the typical work of that occupation, qualification requirements, and possible challenges. They exhibited self-efficacy to achieve their career goals and manifested their determination to overcome prospective difficulties. Additionally, the four participants had compared and evaluated several occupations before committing to the target occupation. For example, Adam had chosen to be a solicitor:

Adam:

I don’t want to be a doctor or an engineer because they were very difficult to transfer to other occupations. A solicitor is different: you can easily find alternative jobs in various economic sectors.

Concerning the influential elements, all four students stated that both the freedom enjoyed in choosing among career choices and personal interest were imperative in their decision-making. For example, Andy had determined to be an academic in chemistry research:

Andy:

None of my friends has the same aspiration. The most important thing for me in deciding a career is my own interest. I just want to pursue that, that’s all.

Apart from personal autonomy in deciding a career, Adam mentioned the moderate influence from his family. Brought up in a family in which his grandfather was one of the founders of a law firm, Adam had gained a degree of knowledge about becoming a solicitor since his childhood. His aspiration to be a solicitor was a result of his investigation of the occupation over a long period of time.

Adam:

My grandfather established a law firm forty years ago. He always shows me law-related books and explains the impact of solicitors to me. One book inspired me is The Wall of Law, The Wall of Justice, which helped me to understand the role of law in society.

Regarding the impact of career guidance activities, two participants, whose target careers (solicitor and doctor) fell into the “mainstream” of School A, reported the positive impact of career activities. In contrast, the other two participants, whose career directions (chemistry researcher and tutor in a tutorial school) fell outside the mainstream, complained that career guidance activities were narrowly focused on business-related jobs rather than laying an equivalent emphasis on the three academic tracks of science, business, and humanities.

Three participants were coded as moratorium individuals. Moratorium individuals are actively exploring alternative career choices (criterion: presence of exploration), but they have not yet made any decision on specific career goals (criterion: absence of commitment). Each of the moratorium participants in School A mentioned a broad area of occupation, but none of them was prepared to make a commitment to any specific occupation. In regard to the features of moratorium individuals, Alan, who aspired to be a doctor, told the researcher that his anxiety about career choices was related to the preparation for public examinations:

Alan:

I’m not sure if I would get into the career [of Medicine]. I always doubt if I’ve made the right choice. I am under a lot of pressure [because] I don’t know how to obtain high marks in some subjects [for example, Liberal Studies], which will influence my chances [of being admitted to Medical School].

The other two moratorium individuals (Albert and Alex) had in a different way decided to concentrate on their preparation for public examinations and postpone their career decision-making. Clear goals for a short period of time reduced their stress.

Albert:

For the time being, I have just chosen a broad area of occupation [management] and hopefully I will be admitted by the relevant programs. [Afterwards,] I may carefully consider to which occupation I should commit in the future.

Concerning the influential elements, personal interest was very important for Alan, while Albert and Alex exchanged views with different people to deepen their understanding of various occupations and develop self-knowledge.

One foreclosure individual was identified in School A. Foreclosure individuals have not experienced the process of finding out alternative occupations (criterion: absence of exploration); nevertheless, they have committed to an occupation introduced by authoritative figures (criterion: presence of commitment). Alfred, the foreclosure individual, initially wanted to be a social worker, but this idea was vetoed by his parents.

Alfred:

I had chosen social work as my career. When my mother knew it, she said, “You have good marks. You could choose accountancy, why do you want to be a social worker? Are you stupid?” Consequently, I decided to follow Mum’s advice.

Two participants from School A were categorized as diffusion individuals. Diffusion individuals have neither experienced career exploration (criterion: absence of exploration) nor made a decision on a specific career (criterion: absence of commitment). Both of the diffusion participants in School A said that they might set up a firm in the future, but they could not articulate this career goal nor provide details about the relevant preparation.

Andre:

I hope to have my own firm, but I still don’t have concrete ideas about what to do. My father has a private firm and he really enjoys his life. I think that’s not bad.

To summarize, School A had a student intake of better academic abilities. All the career choices mentioned by the participants in School A were professions with promising salaries and social status, which suggested an association between academic achievement and prestige of work. Regarding the features of an identity status, the achievement and moratorium participants exhibited autonomy in choosing and deciding their career choices, while the foreclosure and diffusion participants demonstrated little self-direction. Family influence was reported by the achievement and foreclosure individuals with different perceptions: Family was a source of in-depth exploration and/or provided role models for achievement individuals, and family was an authority shaping foreclosure students’ career identity. The perceived impact of school career guidance was mostly reported from achievement and moratorium students and focused on two aspects: (1) the effectiveness of guidance activities depended on the extent to which career guidance activities matched students’ personal interests and (2) good connections with alumni provided school students with extra opportunities of career exploration. A competitive and examination-driven culture was reflected mostly in moratorium individuals who exhibited either the stress of achieving better academic results or postponing career decision-making. Table 2 presents a brief summary.

Table 2.

Students’ Perceived Influential Elements and Contextual Aspects of Identity Formation.

Identity status	School	Psychological Features	Perceived Influential Elements	Contextual Aspects
Achievement	A&B	Autonomy	Family members provided knowledge about the target career continuously	Family as a source of in-depth exploration
Searching moratorium	B	Autonomy; stress; less confident	From multiple sources of uncertainty; concrete situation of the target career; gap between academic achievement and desired career	Demand of manpower in different occupations; streaming of academic results
Moratorium	A	Autonomy; stress; or postponed career consideration	Results in public examinations may decide the possible scope of careers	Streaming of academic results and stakeholders favor high prestigious work
	B	Autonomy; stress; or postponed career consideration	Few students reported stress from public examinations; more students reported choice anxiety	School–work transition made students focus on career consideration rather than academic anxiety
Foreclosure	A&B	Less autonomy	Family members directed the choices	Family members as authority
Diffusion	A&B	Less autonomy; less exploration		Family members provided possible models

School B

Sixteen students from School B presented the five statuses of career identity: two in achievement, five in searching moratorium, seven in moratorium, one in foreclosure, and one in diffusion status.

The two achievement participants reported a good understanding of their target occupations showed the self-confidence to get into the occupations and recognized personal interest as an important element in making career choices. For instance:

Billy:

I want to be a police officer, since police officer enjoy competitive salaries and benefits, which may ensure a good life in future. Being a police officer is also interesting; you could have a gun! That is a dream for almost every boy.

Over a long period of time, Billy’s family members had provided him with role models as well as opportunities of learning about the benefits of the civil service.

Billy:

Some of my family members are in the civil service, and I have enjoyed very good benefits since my childhood; for example, you can see a doctor for free. I think the work of the police is quite stable and suits me well.

Five participants were categorized as searching moratorium individuals. Searching moratorium individuals used to commit to a career but have started to review the career goal (criterion: presence of reconsideration of commitment) and maintain the flexibility to explore other options (criterion: presence of exploration). Searching moratorium participants in School B reported commitments to specific careers and expressed the flexibility to choose other occupations. Various justifications for maintaining career flexibility were reported. For example, Belinda was anxious that the real situation of her target career might be different from her current understanding, while Bella was concerned about the keen competition in her chosen field of design. Betty had dreamed of being a social worker since childhood. Although she understood the nature of social work and appreciated the moral spirit of social workers, Betty would not pursue the related programs immediately after school because of her low academic performance.

Betty:

Social work has been my dream for 10 years, but it is very difficult to achieve and requires high academic performance. I might study diploma courses or get into other jobs after school; afterward, I might look for possibilities to study a social work program.

All but one searching moratorium student reported some degree of anxiety. For example:

Belinda:

I feel hesitant, since I have no real work experience. I have made a career decision after listening to various views, but actually I don’t know if I could handle those tasks in real situation. Such uncertainty often caused me to feel stress.

Seven students were coded as moratorium individuals. Four of the seven mentioned a broad area of occupation, such as shipping and estates. The other three were exploring different career choices, and no commitment was made. For instance, Blues listed several possible occupations and felt anxious about which to choose.

Blues:

I have many ideas, to work in the Customs Department, be a pastry cook or a health therapist… I feel stressed because I have too many ideas but don’t know how to make choices. I am interested in most of them but I have no idea which one is the best for me.

Of the seven moratorium participants, Bonnie was concentrating on the preparation for public examinations. She was clearly aware of the fact that her results in the public examinations would decide the possible occupations to pursue in the future.

The moratorium students provided diverse answers regarding influential elements: manpower needs in different economic sectors in Hong Kong, self-understanding, school subjects previously taken, and personal interest. Among all the elements, personal interest was recognized by all the moratorium participants as the key factor fostering their career exploration. To varying degrees, significant others, such as parents, peers, and teachers, served as information providers and/or as outsiders who provided critical comments. The positive effect of school career guidance was only reported by two of the seven as helpful in broadening their horizons.

One foreclosure and one diffusion individual were identified in School B. Both participants wanted to be a kindergarten teacher. Ballina, the foreclosure individual, proactively and frequently sought views from her mother, and even her career decision was based on her mother’s expectations. The diffusion student, Byron, mentioned that he might be a kindergarten teacher in the future but without providing sufficient details.

To summarize, School B had a student intake of lower academic abilities. The participants in School B shared similar characteristics of the identity statuses with those in School A. Besides this, they reported some features related to their underachievement and low SES backgrounds. For instance, the majority of the participants from School B would pursue vocational education after school. Further, most participants from School B were facing the challenges of the transition from school to work. This timing activated students to explore possible occupations and to consider career development. Thus, a higher percentage of participants in achievement, searching moratorium, and moratorium statuses, who exhibited active engagement in career exploration, were identified from School B. By relating this higher percentage of advanced identity statuses to the participants’ low SES backgrounds, it was observed that students’ SES was not linked to their career identity statuses but associated with the area of occupation and prestige of work.

Discussion

The present study investigated 26 Hong Kong adolescents’ career identity. Most participants were identified in the achievement, searching moratorium, and moratorium statuses, and contextual elements were found to exert influence on individuals to varying degrees. Table 2 presents a summary of the findings derived from the two schools and responded to the two research questions.

Hong Kong Adolescent Career Identity Statuses

Most participants (21 of 26) were found to be in the status of achievement, searching moratorium, or moratorium toward the end of school. This pattern probably reflects both a general tendency of adolescent identity formation and the importance of the time point for transition. Kroger, Martinussen, and Marcia’s (2010) meta-analysis on the change in young people’s identity status outlines a process by which most adolescents in secondary schools gradually move from diffusion and foreclosure statuses into a moratorium status. Hirschi (2012) mentioned the significant influence of education transition on adolescent career identity formation. The time point of the present study, around 3 months before the end of secondary school, may have been significant in our discovery of a group of participants who were well-developed in their career identity. The researchers of the current study would not argue that the career identity statuses of Hong Kong adolescents are advanced. Further quantitative studies with a large sample of respondents may present an overall picture.

Family Influence

The present study is consistent with Lam and Tam’s (2011) study on Hong Kong adolescents: Parents exert influence on achievement adolescents by providing career goals and models, while serve as an authority in deciding foreclosure individuals’ occupations. The present study provides further evidence that family may foster an adolescent career identity status of achievement through the provision of in-depth career exploration opportunities.

The findings of the present study echo the literature showing that academic achievement and SES background predict the prestige of work and reflect the reproduction of parents’ careers and social status (Cheng & Yuen, 2012). The comparative analysis of the two schools has illustrated this point. The present study, however, does not support the argument that SES may predict adolescent career identity formation (Solomontos-Kountouri & Hurry, 2007). Most participants from School B were from low SES families, yet a larger percentage of the advanced identity statuses were identified from them. It is likely that the time point of school–work transition overrides the SES background. Further studies may examine the correlates between career identity statuses and individuals’ SES at different time points through which the relationship between individuals’ SES and career identity formation may be evident.

School Influence

Most moratorium students mentioned that they were positively influenced by career teachers and peers through frequent exchanges of views. This finding supports Lopez’s (2001) argument of nurturing a climate that encourages interpersonal interaction. A small proportion of the participants recognized the effects of career guidance activities implemented in the two schools, which implied that the effectiveness of school career guidance should be improved. The importance of aligning personal interest with school career guidance activities was stressed by some participants, which raises the necessity of providing career guidance that accommodates individual differences (Montgomery, Hernandez, & Ferrer-Wreder, 2008).

Cultural Influence

According to the literature, the stress for moratorium individuals is mostly generated from choice anxiety (Kroger, 2007). Moratorium students with low academic achievement, as demonstrated in School B, have confirmed this point. Nonetheless, the participants who were preparing for university studies reported either postponed career decisions or achievement anxiety aroused by public examinations. The postponement of career decisions provoked by preparation for college studies adds evidence to the literature (Stringer, Kerpelman, & Skorikov, 2012), while achievement anxiety reflects the fact that academic performance in Hong Kong is imperative in determining a promising future (Ho, 2004). Some moratorium participants with a good academic performance tended to conceive that their career would be decided by academic achievement. For such individuals, academic excellence had even overridden personal interest in considering career issues. Previous research into high-ability students in mainland China has shown similar findings (Song, 2012). In contrast, less able students seldom reported achievement-related concerns, probably because they had accepted the likelihood of pursuing vocational education after school.

The self-directed tendency of Hong Kong adolescents reported from the present study supports the findings of Leung et al. (2014) that personal interest is an important factor among Hong Kong secondary students in considering their career. This is in contrast to the studies situated in mainland China and Taiwan, where a larger proportion of adolescents exhibited collectivistic inclinations; consequently, career exploration was less frequently based on personal interest (Lee et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2012).

Implications for Parental Education and Career Guidance in School

The present study suggests that parents and family are likely to take a strong role in supporting adolescents’ thorough exploration of favorable career by sharing their own views and involving their children in real work situations. However, most parents in Hong Kong lack such knowledge about career identity development and the strategies of how to promote children’s career exploration. Future education programs for parents should address this topic.

Given that career education has been one of the essential components of the NSS curriculum, the key role undertaken by school career guidance should be strengthened. The importance of school–work transition implies that career guidance programs should have sufficient flexibility in terms of various types of career guidance activities responding to different time points. Individual differences in career identity formation suggest the employment of tailor-made strategies to meet individual development needs. Career guidance teachers and counselors may identify individual students’ career identity statuses using the ISI and FISI. For achievement individuals, the follow-up guidance may enhance their self-assessment skills that monitor the preparation for the desired occupations. Self-assessment skills include but not limit to the following: setting specific objectives; achieving the objectives using cognitive, motivational, and behavioral strategies; controlling and monitoring the process through meta-cognitive strategies; and reviewing the process and outcomes. For searching moratorium and moratorium individuals, career guidance teachers and counselors should consider informational and emotional support for these students. On the one hand, career guidance teachers and counselors may help those individuals to know more about the world of work, to make comparisons among different occupations and further study choices, and to set a concrete plan to narrow choices. On the other hand, career guidance teachers and counselors need to identify those students’ sources of anxiety and reduce the anxiety by encouraging them to use positive self-talk and to focus on current meaningful activities. Interventions and a supportive approach from a life and planning education perspective may be needed for foreclosure and diffusion individuals. These interventions should aim at engaging foreclosure and diffusion students in developing self-knowledge at a deep level, exploring career choices through turning the life themes presented in their previous experiences into concrete career goals, attaching a sense of purpose to their current activities, and making concrete action plans.

Limitations and Conclusion

As the first examination of adolescent career identity statuses in Hong Kong, the present study contributes to the literature on the features of career identity statuses of Hong Kong adolescents and the related contextual impacts. It is acknowledged that two disadvantages of the current study limit its generalization. The first limitation is the sample size. Twenty-six participants from two schools cannot give a complete picture of Hong Kong adolescents. In addition, the present study mainly examined high- and low-ability students, and the career identity statuses of students with moderate ability remain unknown. It is speculated that moderate-ability students may struggle to choose between academic and vocational paths with reference to the Hong Kong context, which may affect their consideration of career development. A quantitative method may be employed in the future to reveal a full spectrum of Hong Kong adolescent career identity.

The second limitation is the use of a focus group method. Focus group interviews employed in the present study have revealed the diversity of career identity statuses and possible influential elements. Although the moderator strove to maintain the balance of contributions among the participants, it was observed that some participants were more assertive and articulate than others. The researchers also cross-linked the identity statuses with the utterances of participants at the end of data analysis. It was found that the participants in the less advanced statuses (diffusion and foreclosure) tended to be silent during the interviews. This observation revealed a limitation of the present study: although data saturation in terms of gaining individuals’ various statuses of career identity has been reached, participants may not have had balanced opportunities to express their views. Individual interviews with foreclosure and diffusion adolescents in the future may provide richer information about their concerns and suggest adequate guidance and counselling activities. Additionally, although the clearly defined scoring method and the sample codes and quotations were employed to ensure reliability, it is acknowledged that the independence of the raters in the present study could be improved.

To conclude, career identity is a process shaped by internal psychological processes intertwining with various contexts. Career identity formation is propelled at the time point of school–work transition. To foster adolescent career identity formation, family may provide adolescents with role models and opportunities of deep exploration in certain occupations. Schools may attach importance to guidance activities catering for individual differences in career identity formation and help adolescents think critically about personal goals and social values.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong for the support through the General Research Fund (GRF 843212) and The Education University of Hong Kong for supporting the preparation of this manuscript. The authors would like to thank the principals, teachers, and students in two schools as well as those involved in the ISCY-HK for their kind support. Thanks are extended to Mr. Michael Chau and Mr. Derek Chun in helping the preparation of this manuscript.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: The authors acknowledge the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong for the support through the General Research Fund (GRF 843212) and The Education University of Hong Kong for supporting the preparation of this manuscript.

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