Abstract
The current study developed and tested the indirect effect of the relational job characteristics (i.e., perceived prosocial impact and perceived social value) on the burnout syndrome through the autonomous motivation. The cross-sectional survey data analysis of 1,538 Portuguese contact center workers was analyzed using the software package Mplus to conduct structural equation models. Autonomous motivation partially explains the negative relation between the relational job characteristics and burnout. However, the direct relationship between perceived prosocial impact and burnout was not significant. To promote awareness about the perceived value and impact of work and to invest in the interactions between workers and customers are the major practical implications of this study.
Keywords
Society has witnessed a transformation in the nature of work over time, shifting from primarily a manufacturing economy to a service economy. The theories and practices of human resource management and vocational psychologists must adapt to and accompany such changes to ensure the well-being of workers and the efficiency of organizations. In Portugal, contact centers are among the currently growing service providers; in fact, according to the Portuguese Association of Contact Centers, more than 50,000 workers were present in the country in 2015. Because the exponential growth of contact centers is out of proportion with regard to the small size of Portugal, it is important to investigate whether the conclusions of international studies apply to the Portuguese population. The literature indicates that high levels of stress represent one of the major problems associated with this professional activity, which likely leads to burnout and promotes negative outcomes such as dissatisfaction, lack of motivation, low productivity and service quality levels, turnover (intention), and absenteeism (Batt, Doellgast, Kwon, & Agrawal, 2005; Chambel & Castanheira, 2010; Leiter & Maslach, 1988). However, it is important to supplement this research trend that focuses on the process of developing burnout and its consequences to determine how we can minimize the negative consequences of work at contact centers. Some authors (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003) argue that frequent contact with customers is the reason for the high frequency of burnout among contact center workers. However, according to the relational job design (RJD) perspective (Grant, 2007), contact with customers might promote positive outcomes such as increased intrinsic motivation, satisfaction with work, and performance levels. The present study adopted a position within this paradox by providing support for the hypotheses that the inclusion of relational job characteristics (RJCs), namely the prosocial impact, that is, the degree to which workers feel that their actions benefit other people, and the perceived social value, that is, the degree to which workers believe that their actions are valued by customers, results in positive consequences for workers and that the positive load resulting from such characteristics might minimize the occurrence of burnout.
Grant and Parker (2009) urged and inspired interest in the development of new studies of RJD. Because the research on RJCs is relatively recent and lacks broad empirical verification, the present study also sought to investigate whether the effect of RJCs on the minimization of burnout is mediated by autonomous motivation because the latter is likely an outcome of the inclusion of RJCs into the work setting (Grant & Berry, 2011; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli, & Hetland, 2012) and a factor that minimizes the occurrence of burnout (Chambel, Castanheira, Oliveira-Cruz, & Lopes, 2015; Fernet, Austin, & Vallerand, 2012). Most RJC studies were conducted using samples representative of active functions (e.g., firefighters, nurses, and military personnel). However, it is important to analyze the effect of RJCs on workers with less active jobs, in which the positive effects of work are not as patently evident. In fact, a need exists to understand how contact center workers experience their reality because this type of sedentary and technology-mediated work is becoming increasingly common.
The present study also intended to draw practical conclusions that might help contact center managers, as well as vocational psychologists, understand how they can intervene to promote employee well-being by minimizing the occurrence of burnout, a well-known problem within this work setting.
Theoretical Framework
RJCs and Burnout
Burnout is a syndrome composed of three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach, 2003). Emotional exhaustion describes the feelings of depletion associated with facing the emotional demands of work. Depersonalization, categorized in the present study as cynicism, is characterized by feelings of detachment and indifference toward the work. Finally, reduced personal accomplishment consists of one’s self-assessment as professionally incompetent. Emotional exhaustion and cynicism are currently considered the main dimensions of burnout (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) and therefore were considered in the present study.
The development of burnout might be explained using the job demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). According to this model, work conditions can be categorized as job demands that evoke an energy-driven process (e.g., pressure, emotional demands, and role ambiguity) and job resources that contribute to the development of the motivation-driven process (e.g., social support, constructive feedback, and autonomy). Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, and Schaufeli (2001) state that job demands have a positive relationship with emotional exhaustion, whereas (lack of) job resources have a positive relationship with cynicism. Therefore, a situation characterized by high job demands and scarce job resources negatively affects employee well-being and increases the chance of burnout (Chambel & Castanheira, 2010).
Several authors (Deery, Iverson, & Walsh, 2002; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Perlman & Hartman, 1982; Schaufeli & Maslach, 1993) have reported a tendency toward burnout among jobs that involve frequent contact with customers because this contact might cause anxiety and frustration among workers. Contact with customers at contact centers involves emotional labor (i.e., workers must show certain emotions that meet the organization’s norms and standards to elicit specific feelings in customers). Within the voice-to-voice service setting, this situation is known as “smiling through the phone.” Most organizations expect their workers to show that they are happy, friendly, and pleased with serving the customers, regardless of their true feelings (Erickson & Wharton, 1997; Hochschild, 1979). This fact indicates the constant presence of emotional dissonance among contact center workers (Lewig & Dollard, 2003). Most contact centers lack the resources needed to reduce the effort required to comply with the demands placed on workers; as such, the occurrence of burnout is expected (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2003).
However, Grant (2007) viewed the relationships created within organizational settings as something that might lead to positive outcomes and could be considered a job resource. Specifically, Grant’s RJD theory emphasizes the relevance of the relationships created within work environments to obtain benefits for both the organization and individuals. According to RJD theory, external relationships (e.g., those with customers) and internal relationships (e.g., those with colleagues) constitute the relational architecture that enables workers to perceive the effect of their work on customers. Grant (2008b) described four dimensions in RJD theory. The perceived prosocial impact is the degree to which workers feel that their actions benefit other people, whereas perceived antisocial impact alludes to the subjective feeling that one’s actions are harmful to the well-being of others. Grant and Parker (2009) explained that when contact with customers results in increased perceived prosocial impact, workers develop affective commitment toward customers (e.g., concern and emotional devotion toward the customers). The last dimension of RJD theory is perceived social value, which corresponds to the degree to which workers believe that their actions are valued and recognized by customers. To summarize, when workers perceive that their actions have positive consequences for other people, they begin considering them important, which increases their motivation to make a prosocial difference (i.e., to positively affect other individuals or social groups; Grant, 2007).
Other theories, such as Karasek’s (1979), also emphasize the relevance of social rewards to counterbalance the negative aspects experienced with regard to this type of work. The same is true of the job demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), which recognizes the need for job resources (e.g., social support) to match the effort required to meet job demands. Several authors have called attention to the fact that social support and continuous feedback (by supervisors, colleagues, and customers) promote motivation, dedication, and involvement among workers to their work (Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2003; Deery et al., 2002). Holman, Chissick, and Totterdell (2002) provided another example in which they concluded that while constant contact with customers might increase anxiety and fear of failure among contact center workers, it is also associated with job satisfaction. This finding suggests that actively tending to customers’ needs and solving their problems might also be satisfactory to workers, rather than exclusively viewed as a stressful component of their work. In addition, Grant and Campbell (2007) as well as Grant and Sonnentag (2010) showed that the perception of benefiting others might protect service sector workers from the feelings of low job satisfaction and burnout associated with the perception of harming others. These authors suggested that, rather than reducing the opportunities workers have to interact with customers to reduce stress, organizations should do the exact opposite (i.e., increase such opportunities so that they might serve as a coping strategy in which the opportunities to contribute to the customers’ well-being might compensate for and reduce high levels of perceived antisocial impact). Grant (2008b) reinforced this idea in studies of fund-raising callers; the author observed that exposure to cues associated with the meaning of work contributed to increasing workers’ performance because it allowed for a better understanding of the perceived prosocial impact and the perceived social value of the workers’ work.
Based on the aforementioned evidence, we postulated the following hypotheses:
RJCs and Autonomous Motivation
Ryan and Deci (2000) developed the self-determination theory (SDT), which aimed at understanding the type of motivation that each individual exhibits at a given time. Upon consideration of the various forces that lead individuals to act, in addition to identifying the degree of commitment (a quantifiable aspect of motivation), SDT distinguishes among various types of motivation (i.e., the qualitative aspect of motivation) such that each such type has specific consequences for the behavior and well-being of individuals (Howard, Gagné, Morin, Wang, & Forest, 2016).
According to Ryan and Deci’s (2000) theory, motivation varies across a continuum ranging from the most extrinsic reasons (i.e., controlled motivation) to the most autonomous (i.e., self-determined intentions). The extrinsic (i.e., external) motivation pole corresponds to situations in which individuals act in conformity with external regulations (e.g., when someone chooses a given job exclusively based on the salary). In turn, the autonomous (i.e., intrinsic) motivation pole encompasses intentions that reflect the individual’s own disposition to explore and develop his or her skills (e.g., when individuals recognize that personal accomplishment is the greatest benefit obtained from work). Between the poles represented by extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, the motivation continuum includes three types of extrinsic motivation that differ in their degree of autonomy. Introjected regulation, which is closer to the external motivation pole, represents behaviors that seek to avoid negative feelings or improve the individual’s self-esteem (e.g., when someone choses a job just to avoid the shame associated with unemployment). Identified regulation demands some recognition (i.e., identification) of the value of a given behavior to attain future personal goals (e.g., the reason to choose a certain professional activity is to facilitate access and increase the odds of finding a better job in the future). Finally, integrated regulation, which is closer to the intrinsic motivation pole, has a more autonomous nature, representing the individuals who adopt particular behaviors to be more congruent with other personal needs (e.g., the reason to choose a particular activity is that it affords the flexibility needed to achieve a positive work–family balance). Deci and Ryan (2008) consider that these types constitute two dimensions of motivation: controlled and autonomous motivation. Controlled motivation is present when someone engages in a particular activity because of external pressure and controls. In turn, autonomous motivation makes individuals engage in a particular activity with a full sense of volition, freedom, and choice. In line with past research (e.g., Chambel et al., 2015; Fernet et al., 2012; Gillet, Gagne, Sauvagère, & Fouquereau, 2013), the present study follows the line of thinking that the various types of motivation consolidate into autonomous (i.e., intrinsic and identified) and controlled (i.e., introjected and external) motivations.
Ryan and Deci (2000) suggested that the social environment facilitates or hinders the development of intrinsic motivation. As previously mentioned, the social environment at work might be affected by the introduction of RJCs. When workers realize that their actions have positive consequences for other people, they then begin to perceive them as significantly important, which increases their motivation to make a prosocial difference (i.e., the desire to have a positive effect on other individuals or social groups; Grant, 2007). Such a desire is an intrinsic force, which suggests that the nature of Grant’s (2007) prosocial motivation is similar to that of Ryan and Deci (2000) autonomous motivation. The studies by Grant (2008a) as well as Grant and Berry (2011) showed that a synergic interaction exists between prosocial and autonomous motivation, which corroborates the idea that both have a common, intrinsic, nature. Because several studies have shown that prosocial motivation is a consequence of the introduction of RJCs into the organizational setting (e.g., Grant, 2007; Grant & Ashford, 2008; Grant & Parker, 2009; Petrou et al., 2012), we postulated the following hypotheses:
The Indirect Effect of Autonomous Motivation
Ryan and Deci (2000) considered that each dimension of motivation has specific consequences for the behavior and well-being of individuals, and they associated positive outcomes with autonomous motivation (e.g., satisfaction, persistence, and affective commitment) and negative outcomes to controlled motivation (e.g., burnout, turnover, and workaholism). Over the years, several studies have agreed with the idea postulated by the creators of SDT. In 2012, Fernet, Austin, and Vallerand published a study that sought to resolve the explanatory model for burnout (i.e., Bakker & Demerouti’s, 2007, job demands-resource model and Ryan & Deci’s, 2000, SDT). The authors of that study found that job resources were positively related to autonomous motivation but negatively related to controlled motivation. In addition, autonomous motivation was negatively related to emotional exhaustion and positively related to commitment, whereas controlled motivation was positively related to emotional exhaustion. In other words, the available job resources influenced autonomous and controlled motivation, which in turn influenced the emotional exhaustion and commitment of workers. More recently, Chambel, Castanheira, Oliveira-Cruz, and Lopes (2015) conducted a study of Portuguese soldiers; the results revealed a positive relationship between autonomous motivation and engagement as well as a negative relationship with burnout, whereas controlled motivation exhibited the opposite pattern.
Considering the evidence that supports the existence of a relationship between certain RJC components and autonomous motivation as well as between autonomous motivation and burnout, we postulated the following hypotheses:
Method
Participants and Procedure
The sample used in the present study comprised 1,538 Portuguese contact center workers. Their ages varied from 18 to 62 years old and the largest proportions corresponded to the age range 21–30 (37.3%) and 31–40 (35.5%) years. A significant proportion of the participants were women (70.3%). Most participants were single (52.8%), and a significant proportion was unemployed before their current job (34.3%). Most had a full-time daytime schedule (61.7%) and answered inbound calls (64.5%). A significant proportion of the participants worked at their current company between 1 and 5 years (36%). The sample included both temporary (46.2%) and permanent (53.8%) workers. Most participants had completed secondary school (51.8%).
The data were collected in March 2017 using an online questionnaire uploaded to a platform devoted to this purpose (SurveyMonkey); the time to complete the questionnaire was approximately 15 min. After an initial contact in which the study was explained, the link to the questionnaire was directly sent via e-mail to all of the workers of the target company. All candidates were informed that participation was voluntary and that they would not receive any reward. The confidentiality and anonymity of all responses were guaranteed.
Measurements
All scales had been previously used in Portugal and were translated into Portuguese and then a translator was asked to translate the Portuguese version back into English (Brislin, 1980).
RJCs
RJCs were measured via a scale translated into and adapted for Portuguese based on the scales by Grant (2008b) as well as Grant and Campbell (2007). This translated scale has already been validated to Portuguese and Brazilian nurses in a previous study (Santos, Castanheira, Chambel, Vieira, & Costa, 2017). The Perceived Prosocial Impact Scale comprises 6 items, 3 of which were translated and adapted from Grant (2008b) and 3 from Grant and Campbell (2007). One example item is “I am very aware of the ways in which my work is benefiting customers”. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α) of the validation study with nurses was α = .93 and of the present study was α = .96. The perceived prosocial value dimension comprises 3 items (e.g., “I feel that customers appreciate my work”) that were translated and adapted from Grant (2008a). The internal consistency coefficient of the validation study with nurses was α = .89 and of the present study was α = .89. Items were responded to using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (I disagree completely) to 7 (I agree completely).
Motivation
Motivation was measured using a version of the Motivation at Work Scale (MAWS) of Gagné et al. (2010), which was translated into Portuguese and previously employed in study in contact center (Sobral, Chambel, & Castanheira, 2016). This instrument comprises 16 items. Participants rate each item on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (completely). The items correspond to the four types of motivation (4 items each) described by Deci and Ryan (1985): intrinsic regulation (e.g., “Because having this job brings me personal fulfillment”), identified regulation (e.g., “Because it increases the odds of finding a better job in the future”), introjected regulation (e.g., “Because to be employed is essential for my life”), and external regulation (e.g., “I have this job because of the money I make”). In the previous Portuguese study in a contact center (Sobral et al., 2016), we obtained adequate internal consistency coefficients of these dimensions: intrinsic, α = .90; identified, α = .81; introjected, α = .84; and extrinsic, α = .80.
Similar to Gillet, Gagne, Sauvagère, and Fouquereau (2013), the various types of motivation in the present study were clustered into two factors: autonomous motivation (8 items measuring intrinsic and identified regulation) and controlled motivation (8 items measuring introjected and external regulation). The internal consistency coefficient of the scales in the present study was α = .91 for autonomous motivation and α = .83 for controlled motivation. To remain faithful to the SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000), we considered that analysis of the effect of controlled motivation was justified, although we did not postulate any hypothesis with regard to this dimension.
Burnout
Burnout dimensions (i.e., emotional exhaustion and cynicism) were measured using a Portuguese adaptation of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, General Survey (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1986), which has been used in previous studies in contact center (e.g., Castanheira & Chambel, 2010). The Emotional Exhaustion Scale comprises 5 items (e.g., “I feel used up at the end of the work day”); the Cronbach’s α of this scale was .90 in the previous Portuguese study and .93 in the present study. In addition, the Cynicism Scale comprises 5 items (e.g., “I doubt the value and usefulness of my work”); the Cronbach’s α of this scale was .80 in the previous Portuguese study and .83 in the present study. The Cronbach’s α of burnout was .91 in the present study. Items were responded to on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (every day).
Control variables
To avoid alternative explanations, specific variables that could have affected the results but were not included in the hypotheses were controlled via statistical analysis. Some studies (Johnson & Johnson, 2000; Lobene & Meade, 2010) have shown that overqualified workers exhibit low levels of occupational well-being (e.g., motivation and satisfaction) because they do not feel that they have opportunities to apply all of their knowledge and skills in their work, and their occupational expectations are not met. Therefore, we decided to control the variable “qualification” (ranging from a value of 1, which corresponded to an education level below Grade 9, to a value of 8, which corresponded to an education level above a BA degree). Several studies (Chambel, Castanheira, & Sobral, 2016; Lopes & Chambel, 2016) found differences with regard to the relationship between the perceived work environment and both positive (e.g., satisfaction and motivation) and negative (e.g., burnout and turnover) outcomes among temporary and permanent employees because of the specificities of individual work situations. Therefore, we also controlled the variable “employment contract” (0 = temporary, 1 = permanent). Finally, because SDT acknowledges that how external rewards are assigned affects worker motivation, we controlled the variable “proportion of extra-remuneration” (1 = EUR 0–100; 2 = more than EUR 100 but less than EUR 200; 3 = more than EUR 200 but less than EUR 300; 4 = more than EUR 400).
Statistical Analyses
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Brown, 2015) with structural equation modeling methods were implemented with Mplus 7.2 (Muthén & Muthén, 2015). The maximum likelihood estimation provides the well-known global fit statistics for structural equation modeling methods: comparative fit index (CFI; satisfactory values of .90 and above), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI; satisfactory values of .90 and above), and root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA; satisfactory value below .08; Van de Schoot, Lugtig, & Hox, 2012). Next, a structural model was specified by adding regressions to the CFA (measurement) model in order to determine the standardized beta coefficients (β) and standard errors (SE) for the direction of relationships between the latent variables. The structural model was run with perceived prosocial impact, perceived prosocial value, autonomous motivation, and controlled motivation as first-order latent variables and burnout was a second-order variable with cynicism and exhaustion as first-order latent variables. Statistical significance for all parameters in the study was set at the normal 95% level (p < .05). We calculated the magnitude of indirect effects and tested their significance. For this process, we utilized the “MODEL INDIRECT” command of Mplus software, which estimates and tests specific indirect effects (MacKinnon, 2008). Furthermore, bootstrapping provides the most powerful and reasonable method of obtaining confidence limits for specific indirect effects under most conditions (Preacher & Hayes, 2008), as such, we include in the Mplus syntax the estimating- and contrasting-specific indirect effects using BC bootstrapping (5,000 iterations).
Results
Measurement Model
The goodness-of-fit index of the theoretical model (perceived prosocial impact, perceived social value, autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and burnout, where the second-order latent variable was explained by exhaustion and cynicism) presented an adequate fit to the data, χ2(545) = 3,479.13, p < .01, CFI = .93; TLI = .92; RMSEA = .06.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
The means, standard deviations, and correlations of the investigated variables are described in Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Studied Variables.
**p < .01. *p < .05.
Hypothesis Testing
Structural regression paths based on the hypotheses were added to the five-factor measurement model to establish the structural model. The addition of a direct connection between RJCs and burnout was also added. The control variables were added to the structural equation model.
As Figure 1 shows, the relationship between perceived social impact and burnout was not significant; as such, Hypothesis 1(a) was rejected. However, the perceived social value was significantly and negatively correlated with burnout, thereby providing support for Hypothesis 1(b), β = −.10, p < .05. A significant positive relationship existed between perceived social impact and autonomous motivation (β = .30, p < .01) as well as between perceived social value and autonomous motivation (β = .31, p < .01), which support Hypothesis 2(a) and (b). As expected, the relationship between autonomous motivation and burnout was significant and negative (β = −.64, p < .01). The indirect effect from perceived social impact to burnout through autonomous motivation was negative and significant (β = −.19, p < .01), and the indirect effect from perceived social value to burnout through autonomous motivation was also negative and significant (β = −.20, p < .01).
Dashed line represents nonsignificant value. **p < .01. *p < .05.
We also found a significant positive relationship between perceived prosocial impact and controlled motivation (β = .19, p < .01); the relationship between perceived social value and controlled motivation was significant and negative (β = −.10, p < .01) and that between controlled motivation and burnout was significant and positive (β =.19, p < .01).
Discussion
The results of the present study indicate that the presence of certain RJCs at contact centers (i.e., perceived social value and perceived prosocial impact) helps to reduce burnout, and autonomous motivation partially explains this negative relationship.
As expected, a negative direct relationship exists between perceived social value and burnout, which supports several theories (Karasek, 1979; Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) that stress the relevance of social rewards counterbalancing the negative aspects of this type of function (e.g., Grant & Campbell, 2007; Grant & Sonnentag, 2010). However, the direct relationship between perceived prosocial impact and burnout was not significant, which diverges from the previous literature. Several models (e.g., Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Herzberg, 1968) call attention to the relevance of constructive feedback for obtaining positive outcomes such as increased job satisfaction, motivation, and productivity as well as for reducing negative outcomes such as turnover (intention) and absenteeism. Nevertheless, this unexpected finding may suggest that older job design theories remain applicable because the variable in the latest RJD theory that represents recognition/feedback by others merely has potential to reduce burnout via motivation, rather than through a direct relationship.
We also observed that relational job characteristics were positively related to autonomous motivation, which agrees with the literature. Ryan and Deci (2000) previously established that the social environment can facilitate or hinder the development of intrinsic motivation. Grant (2007) delved deeper into this matter and added that whenever workers perceive that their actions have positive consequences for other individuals, their desire to positively affect others’ lives increases. In addition, other studies have corroborated this line of thought (Grant & Ashford, 2008; Grant & Parker, 2009; Petrou et al., 2012). However, intriguing results not considered in the current hypotheses were obtained: a positive relationship between perceived prosocial impact and controlled motivation as well as a negative relationship between perceived social value and controlled motivation. Despite a positive relationship with autonomous motivation, the perceived prosocial impact also exhibited a positive relationship with controlled motivation. Based on these findings, increases in perceived prosocial impact should also increase autonomous and controlled motivation because the latter might offset the effect of the former on burnout. One possible explanation for this finding is that the mean controlled motivation was high in the present study (5.11), whereas that of autonomous motivation was lower (3.58). This finding corroborates the results of most studies of contact center workers because the reasons to work in this sector are primarily financial or result from other external sources and are not due to a true liking of the job. Therefore, high awareness of the effect of one’s work might be more easily considered influencing, in an autonomous or controlled manner, the reason to work at such job because the workers’ mind-set is more oriented toward compliance with external pressure. Perceived social value, which only increases autonomous motivation, is an external recognition that validates the value of workers, which shows them that they are respected by customers, who recognize their usefulness. Therefore, it is an RJC that does not operate as a source of pressure because it does not overreinforce the idea that workers are responsible for the customers’ lives (the opposite of the possible effect of high perceived prosocial impact). This idea might encourage future studies to seek to establish whether perceived prosocial impact no longer has a significant relationship with controlled motivation in samples in which the mean of controlled motivation is lower than the mean autonomous motivation.
Finally, the results of the present study indicate that autonomous motivation does not have and indirect effect in the relationship between RJC and burnout, which lends support to the theories and studies that assert that there is relationship between such characteristics and autonomous motivation (Grant & Ashford, 2008; Grant & Parker, 2009; Petrou et al., 2012) as well as a negative relationship between autonomous motivation and burnout (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Fernet et al., 2012; Chambel et al., 2015).
Limitations and Future Studies
Regarding the limitations of the present study, the assessment instruments used were based on self-assessment questions and are therefore subject to social desirability bias. In addition, it was not possible to compare participants receiving inbound and outbound calls because the proportions were not balanced to enable a representative comparison (only 13% of calls are outbound). It would be interesting to measure this variable because a vast literature exists on the different motivations of workers based on call type. For instance, the feeling of helping someone who directly seeks the service (inbound) might contribute more significantly to autonomous motivation than situations in which workers must persuade customers they need a given service (outbound). As a fourth limitation, the data collected in the present study exclusively correspond to the realities of Portuguese contact centers, thereby precluding generalization to situations in other countries. Finally, because the present was a cross-sectional study, it was only possible to assess whether relationships (positive or negative) existed between variables. Longitudinal studies should be conducted in the future to assess the existence of causal relationships. Moreover, it would be relevant to conduct longitudinal studies with both experimental and control groups to measure the results before and after the application of training aimed at changing workers’ mind-sets (e.g., reducing controlled motivations and increasing autonomous motivations). These studies should also include strategies to increase perceived prosocial impact and perceived social value. Furthermore, an investigation of the relationship between these characteristics and positive outcomes (e.g., satisfaction and performance) would be interesting.
Practical Implications
To reduce burnout, organizations should redesign functions to create more opportunities for the types of interactions between workers and customers that are likely to increase the perceived value and impact of work. These strategies include (1) the use of customer videos and testimonies (see Grant, 2008b), (2) the development of a database with information on customers so that workers know something about them upon contact (e.g., place of residence, age, whether he or she is difficult, whether he or she has already used the company’s products/services, and whether his or her previous experience with the company was positive) and therefore develop a more personalized relationship with customers, (3) the development of conversation scripts that are not too restricted and do not hinder workers from establishing a relationship with customers, and (4) the performance of satisfaction surveys (follow-up) with customers to provide feedback to workers and perceive what must be improved to provide a more positive experience to the service customers.
While organizations play an indispensable role in function redesign, workers also play an essential role in making their work more pleasant. In other words, it is crucial to resolving the two latest perspectives on job design, that is, the relational and the proactive (Grant & Parker, 2009). According to the proactive perspective, workers themselves must play an active role in the prevention of burnout via job crafting, that is, by making small changes to their tasks and relationships to create more interaction opportunities with customers and therefore positively affect their lives.
Furthermore, by helping people to think about their careers, preparing people for occupations, and to pursuing and changing occupations (Super, 1983), vocational psychologists should develop specific sessions to promote awareness in individuals about the perceived value and impact of work.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.