Reciprocal Relation Between Authenticity and Career Decision Self-Efficacy: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract

Research suggests that authenticity plays a positive role in one’s career decision-making process but little is known of how this role unfolds over time. In the present study, we argue that authenticity positively relates to career decision self-efficacy over time, and vice versa. We conducted a study characterized by a three-wave longitudinal design with 459 Chinese university students over 1 year and examined the reciprocal dynamic effects of authenticity and career decision self-efficacy. Using a cross-lagged approach, we found that authenticity positively relates to career decision self-efficacy over time, and conversely, career decision self-efficacy also positively relates to authenticity over time. Our findings contribute to the literature on authenticity and career decision self-efficacy by demonstrating that they reciprocally promote each other. Our findings also have implications for university students, as well as educators and counselors who assist in facilitating the career decision process.

Keywords

authenticity career decision self-efficacy cross-lagged model Chinese university students

Authenticity (i.e., a person’s tendency to know one’s true self, behave and live in a way that expresses one’s true self, and avoid conforming to the expectations of others; Wood, Linley, Maltby, Baliousis, & Joseph, 2008) has long been demonstrated to positively relate to general well-being (e.g., Baker, Tou, Bryan, & Knee, 2017; Boyraz, Waits, & Felix, 2014; Y. Wang & Li, 2018). However, this positive correlation is not limited to life in general; authenticity may also link to positive career development criterion variables. Research has demonstrated that authenticity is positively related to one’s career decidedness (e.g., White & Tracey, 2011) and career calling (Zhang, Hirschi, Dik, Wei, & You, 2018). However, little is known about how authenticity may relate to career decision self-efficacy (CDSE), the degree of confidence a person has in one’s ability to successfully navigate the career decision process (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). As CDSE has long been recognized as an important factor in successful career decision-making (Guay, Senécal, Gauthier, & Fernet, 2003), new insight into how CDSE is facilitated is valuable. Accordingly, in this study, we investigate the possible reciprocal relation between authenticity and CDSE among a sample of Chinese university students.

This investigation is important in China in particular, where more than 8 million university students graduated in 2018, a number that has increased for 18 consecutive years (Ministry of Education of China, 2018). Given the competitiveness of the employment landscape, university students in China face a high level of uncertainty and pressure in their career decision-making process, making CDSE and authenticity critical attributes to foster. In addition, the discipline of career counseling and guidance remains underdeveloped in China (Hou & Zhang, 2007; Sun & Yuen, 2012), making it essential to establish a stronger empirical and theoretical foundation to support career counselors and practitioners who assist university students navigating their career decisions in this context. In this study, accordingly, we emphasize the importance of authenticity on Chinese university students’ CDSE, hypothesizing that those with high authenticity experience higher CDSE over time, and vice versa. In doing so, first, this study adds to existing research on the role of authenticity in one’s career development by examining the extent to which authenticity increases one’s CDSE. Second, this study also sheds light on the reverse effect, investigating the extent to which CDSE contributes to higher authenticity over time. Investigating the nature of these relationships lends important empirical support to inform the work of career counselors and practitioners in China.

Reciprocal Relation Between Authenticity and CDSE

Authenticity relates to higher CDSE over time

We posit that authenticity may positively relate to CDSE over time. The authentic self is regarded as the distilled essence of a person’s identity (Rivera, Christy, Kim, Vess, Hicks, & Schlegel, 2019). Understanding one’s identity based on exploration of the self was found to be beneficial to CDSE (Nauta & Kahn, 2007). This may be because authenticity fosters social learning (Rivera et al., 2019), which according to social cognitive career theory (Lent & Brown, 2013; Lent et al., 1994) is essential to acquiring self-efficacy in career decision-making. Furthermore, because authentic individuals act in accordance with their true selves and choose environments that are compatible with their true selves (Schmader & Sedikides, 2017), they are likely to experience intrinsic motivation in their career decision-making (Rivera et al., 2019). Intrinsic motivation serves as a central component to competence and efficacy, according to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extending this to career decision-making, authenticity may drive higher self-efficacy in managing the career decision process. That is, individuals may experience high levels of CDSE when they know themselves well and act in line with their true sense of self. In contrast, people inclined to act in ways that satisfy the desires of other people may lack confidence in their ability to make a satisfying career decision.

The Chinese context is unique in ways that may bring the generalizability of extant research into question. For example, Chinese culture emphasizes collectivist values that prioritize the group and others but may discourage the authentic self (Yang, 2009; Zhou, Leung, & Li, 2012). Indeed, research has suggested that Chinese individuals exhibit lower authenticity than do participants from the United States (Slabu, Lenton, Sedikides, & Bruder, 2014). In career development, research reveals that Chinese university students show more dependence on others in career decision-making and less aspiration for an ideal occupation than is the case for U.S. university students (e.g., Guan et al., 2015; Willner, Gati, & Guan, 2015). This may represent a lack of authenticity, instead accepting more external influences on career development. However, even in a Chinese context, this dependence on external others is associated with lower CDSE (Mau, 2000) and less effective coping in the career decision process (Gati & Levin, 2012; Lipshits-Braziler, Gati, & Tatar, 2016). Furthermore, contemporary Chinese values increasingly emphasize an independent and self-directed approach to career development (Wong & Slater, 2002; Zhang, Hirschi, Herrmann, Wei, & Zhang, 2015), especially for younger generation individuals from single-child families who are raised to develop self-clarity and self-prioritization (Yi, Ribbens, & Morgan, 2010). For these reasons, following one’s authentic self seems likely to positively predict CDSE among Chinese university students. Stated formally:
Hypothesis 1: Authenticity is related to higher CDSE over time.

CDSE relates to higher authenticity over time

There is a need to better understand how CDSE can be fostered over time, but investigating how authenticity develops is an important research objective as well (Schmader & Sedikides, 2017). We posit CDSE as a promoter of authenticity. We expect this effect for several reasons. In general, evidence suggests that career and work experiences facilitate the reshaping of one’s sense of self (e.g., Wille, Beyers, & De Fruyt, 2012). This reshaping may be particularly salient for young adults, given the developmental tasks they face regarding identity formation (Roberts, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2003). Because making wise career choices is a crucial task for traditional university students and CDSE is a key element that facilitates successful career choice behavior (Brown & Lent, 2016; Lent et al., 1994), we expect CDSE benefits one’s understanding and development of the true self.

Furthermore, according to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), authenticity reflected in intrinsic motivation is promoted when individuals perceive a sense of competence and self-efficacy. This assertion is consistent with research demonstrating that authenticity is associated with the need for competence and mediates the link between satisfaction of that need with well-being (Thomaes, Sedikides, van den Bos, Hutteman, & Reijntjes, 2017). Research also reveals that self-efficacy is positively related to intrinsic motivation but not extrinsic motivation (Katz, Eilot, & Nevo, 2014; Walker, Greene, & Mansell, 2006), and intrinsic motivation is a significant predictor of one’s authenticity at work (Emmerich & Rigotti, 2017). In contrast, when self-evaluation depends on external motivations (e.g., power), people perceive less authenticity (Y. Wang & Li, 2018). Extending this to career decision-making, it suggests that people with high CDSE may take actions based on the motives from within the self but not from outside of the self. Thus, we anticipate they are more likely to follow their true self instead of conforming to others’ influence. Stated formally:
Hypothesis 2: CDSE is related to higher authenticity over time.

Together, Hypotheses 1 and 2 predict a reciprocal relation in which authenticity and CDSE promote each other over time in a mutual manner.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Data were drawn from a larger data collection effort examining career development in the population of university students in China. As part of this effort, participants were recruited from five universities in China. These five universities geographically diverse; one was located in the east of China (Fujian province), three in the southwest (Sichuan, Chongqing, and Guizhou provinces, respectively), and one in the north (Hebei province). After obtaining support for the study from university administrators and staff, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal data collection, with each wave approximately 6 months apart (and each corresponding to the start of a new semester). University staff explained survey procedures to students and administered paper-and-pencil questionnaires in class. The same procedure was conducted in the follow-up surveys due to its potential for reducing the attrition rate common in longitudinal studies (Graham, 2009). Data provided by participants at each measurement wave were matched using student registration numbers. Participants volunteered without having been offered compensation.

Time 1 (T1) yielded a response rate of 91% (625 completed questionnaires of 690 distributed). The response rate fell to 56% (N = 387) at Time 2 (T2) and 41% (N = 286) at Time 3 (T3), resulting in a final sample of 459 students who provided responses at two or more time points. Most (82%) self-identified as women. Participants reported a mean age of 19.50 years (SD = 1.12, ranging from 17 to 22 years) at T1, and majors in natural sciences and social sciences were approximately equally represented (53% and 47%, respectively).

Instruments

Authenticity

Y. N. Wang (2015) developed a Chinese version of Wood, Linley, Maltby, Baliousis, and Joseph’s (2008) Authenticity Scale; we used this to measure participants’ three components of authenticity: self-alienation (a negative indicator), authentic living, and accepting external influence (also a negative indicator). The scale is comprised of 12 items; an example is “I live in accordance with my values and beliefs.” A 7-point continuous response format was used (i.e., 1 = does not describe me at all to 7 = describes me very well). Test–retest reliability coefficients for subscale scores on the instrument over 2 weeks (ranging from .78 to .84) and 4 weeks (ranging from .78 to .81) were good (Wood et al., 2008). With Chinese samples, Y. N. Wang (2015) reported good internal consistency values for university students (α = .81) and adults (α = .80 to .93). Slabu, Lenton, Sedikides, and Bruder. (2014) demonstrated invariance of scores between Chinese and U.S. participants. Research found that authenticity correlated in predicted (positive) directions with self-esteem and sense of power in Chinese university students (Y. N. Wang, 2015).

CDSE

We used the 25-item CDSE Scale–short form (CDSES-SF, Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996) to measure the degree to which participants felt confident in handling career decision-making tasks. The CDSES-SF items measure five domains: self-appraisal, occupational information, goal selection, planning, and problem solving. An example item is “Make a career decision and then not worry about whether it was right or wrong.” The English items were translated into Mandarin using the procedures of back translation suggested by Brislin (1986). Specifically, the items were independently translated into Chinese by the first author. One doctoral student in psychology was invited to evaluate the accuracy of translation. After consensus was achieved between first author and this doctoral student, the initial Chinese version of the scale was derived. Another doctoral student in psychology with excellent English skills translated the Chinese items back to English. The first author and these two doctoral students then evaluated the original and the translated versions. After a discussion and comparison, the final Chinese version was confirmed. The response scale ranged from 1 (no confidence at all) to 5 (complete confidence). Studies using Chinese samples have yielded strong reliability evidence for CDSES-SF scores (e.g., Guan, Capezio, Restubog, Read, Lajom, & Li, 2016; Hampton, 2005; Jiang, 2015; Jin, Watkins, & Yuen, 2009; α = .91 to .94). Scores on the CDSES-SF have been shown to predict vocational commitment, career adaptability, core self-evaluation, and parental support in Chinese university students (e.g., Guan et al., 2016; Jiang, 2015; Jin et al., 2009). See Table 1 for reliability coefficients, means, and standard deviations for scores on all instruments.

Table 1.
Correlations, Reliabilities, Means, and Standard Deviations of the Assessed Variables.

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Gender — — —

2. Age 19.50 1.12 .03 —

3. Major — — −.11* −.14** —

4. Authenticity T1 4.55 0.87 .01 −.06 .01 .84

5. Authenticity T2 4.54 0.85 .06 .06 .05 .54** .86

6. Authenticity T3 4.47 0.76 −.06 .10 −.05 .53 .60 .84

7. CDSE T1 3.53 0.52 −.12* −.04 .10* .43 .38 .30** .91

8. CDSE T2 3.58 0.47 −.14* .10 .06 .29 .49 .42 .53 .91

9. CDSE T3 3.52 0.46 −.07 .14* .08 .34 .30 .39 .47 .50** .91

Note. Numbers in diagonal in italic are the Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients. CDSE = career decision self-efficacy. N_T1 = 459; N_T2 = 387; N_T3 = 286. *p < .05. **p < .01.

Analytic Approach

We tested the proposed reciprocal relation between authenticity and CDSE using applied cross-lagged analysis. This approach is well suited for estimating how one variable temporally predicts another (Selig & Little, 2012). We used Mplus (Version 7, Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012) with robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLR) to conduct the analyses. The constructs were specified as latent variables indicated by their respective dimensions: authenticity (three dimensions) and CDSE (five dimensions). As is common practice, we used multiple criteria to assess the model fit: the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Generally, values greater than or equal to .90 for CFI and TLI and values lower than or equal to .08 for RMSEA and SRMR are considered a good fit for longitudinal structural equation models (Little, 2013). For model comparisons (i.e., longitudinal invariance), we used the corrected scaled difference test developed by Satorra and Bentler (2001). However, because this test is sensitive to sample size, we also used the change in CFI criterion (i.e., ΔCFI ≤ .01), which best reflects measurement invariance (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).

Results

Preliminary Analyses

We began by testing the potential impact of “missingness” using a dummy variable to compare participants who completed surveys at all three waves to those who completed just two (Little, 2013). Missingness was unrelated to authenticity and CDSE at T1 (p > .05) and was unrelated to gender (χ² = 3.70, p = .06) and study major (χ² = .21, p = .65) as well. However, participants with missing values were somewhat younger (M = 19.30 vs. 19.77, t = −4.50, p < .001). We used the same dummy variable method to compare participants who participated in only T1 with those represented in two or more waves of data collection. We found this missingness pattern, too, was unrelated to authenticity and CDSE at T1 (p > .05) and also unrelated to gender (χ² = 2.59, p = .11) and study major (χ² = .05, p = .81). However, participants with missing values were slightly older (M = 19.72 vs. 19.50, t = 2.21, p < .05); this effect was statistically but not practically significant. Given these results, we concluded that missingness was not systematically associated with study variables, although did slightly vary with age. To mitigate this, we adopted a full information maximum likelihood (FIML) model to estimate the missing data, adding age as an auxiliary variable (Graham, 2009). FIML yields less biased estimates than traditional approaches to managing missing data (e.g., listwise deletion, mean imputation; Graham, 2009). Intercorrelations of all study variables are displayed in Table 1 and reveal moderate positive correlations between authenticity and CDSE at each time point (from .29 to .49, p < .01).

Longitudinal Invariance Models

We conducted a longitudinal invariance analysis to examine the extent to which measures had equivalent meaning and structure across time points (Little, 2013). Partial strong invariance (intercept invariance) is considered sufficient for conducting meaningful longitudinal analyses (Little, 2013). The same indicators were correlated across time points in the baseline model (e.g., authentic living at T1 correlated with authentic living at T2 and at T3), which also allowed latent study variables to be correlated within each time point (e.g., authenticity at T1 correlated with CDSE at T1). The fit of this model was acceptable (see Table 2). Constraining the indicator factor loadings to be equal across time points did not significantly decrease the fit. At this point, the S-Bχ² difference was significant (ΔS-Bχ² = 21.58; df = 12; p = .04), but the ΔCFI was −.002 (less than the criterion .01). Thus, metric invariance was supported; that is, the factor loadings of the study variables were time invariant. Furthermore, constraining the intercepts of indicators to be equal across time points did not significantly decrease the fit, compared to metric invariance. Thus, strong longitudinal invariance was supported.

Table 2.
Fit Information for the Longitudinal Invariance Models and Cross-lagged Model.

Models S-Bχ² df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR ΔS-Bχ² △df △CFI

Configural invariance 488.45 213 .93 .91 .05 .09

Metric invariance 510.12 225 .93 .92 .05 .09 21.58* 12 −.002

Strong invariance 526.19 241 .93 .92 .05 .09 13.35 16 .000

Cross-lagged model—free lags 559.96 245 .92 .91 .05 .10

Cross-lagged model—equal lags 557.94 249 .93 .92 .05 .10 .96 4 .001

p < .05.

Cross-Lagged Model

We proceeded to specify the cross-lagged model. We included gender, age, and study major as control variables due to their associations with CDSE across time points. However, controlling for these variables did not significantly affect the path coefficients. Therefore, we did not include them in the final model. We tested two cross-lagged models. In the first, autoregressive paths were freely estimated across time points, as were the cross-lagged paths. The correlations between the latent variables at each time point were freely estimated. The fit of this model to the data was good (see Table 2). In the second model, autoregressive paths were constrained to be equal across time points (i.e., the path from authenticity at T1 to authenticity at T2 was constrained to be equal to the path from authenticity at T2 to authenticity at T3). The cross-lagged paths were also constrained to be equal across time points (i.e., the path from authenticity at T1 to CDSE at T2 was constrained to be equal to the path from authenticity at T2 to CDSE at T3). The correlations between the latent variables at each time point were still freely estimated. This model fit the data well, too. Constraining these paths did not significantly decrease the fit. Thus, the constrained model was accepted because it is more parsimonious. In this model (see Figure 1), we focused on the reciprocal relation between authenticity and CDSE. Results showed that authenticity positively related to CDSE across time points (b = .07, SE = .03, p < .05), supporting Hypothesis 1. In reverse paths, CDSE also positively related to authenticity across time points (b = .23, SE = .09, p < .05), supporting Hypothesis 2.

Figure 1.
The cross-lagged model of authenticity and career decision self-efficacy with unstandardized and standardized coefficients. Numbers in the parentheses represent the standardized coefficients. Bold lines represent significant cross-lagged paths. Correlations among variables within TI, T2, and T3 were allowed but are not presented. p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to address the question of how authenticity and CDSE relate in university students’ career decision process by exploring their reciprocal relation over three points in time. Using cross-lagged analysis based on a three-wave longitudinal design over 1 year, our results indicated that authenticity related to higher CDSE over time, and CDSE also related to higher authenticity over time. These results warrant replication but extend what is currently known about how the relation between authenticity and CDSE unfolds over time and how this process benefits the career development of university students in China.

A primary contribution of this research is demonstrating authenticity’s positive effect on CDSE among Chinese university students. Our results suggest university students with high authenticity experience more confidence in solving career decision tasks over time. This adds to prior research supporting authenticity’s positive influence in the career domain (e.g., White & Tracey, 2011; Zhang et al., 2018). Our findings support the interpretation that authenticity is a positive personal input that promotes higher levels of CDSE. Support for this assertion is especially compelling in the present study due to its longitudinal design.

Another contribution of this research is showing a reverse effect in which CDSE relates to higher authenticity over time. This result supports the notion that one’s career development attitudes can influence one’s sense of self (e.g., Wille et al., 2012). This evidence is particularly relevant for traditional university students who occupy a developmental stage in which identity formation is key (Roberts et al., 2003). Our results suggest that university students who have a higher confidence in their career decision-making perceive a higher sense of authenticity. This finding is consistent with the argument derived from self-determination theory that when individuals experience competence, they are more likely to be authentic (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In this regard, our results extend what is currently known about CDSE’s effects beyond the career domain.

Our results also advance the literature on career development in China by suggesting that for Chinese university students, following their true self is a productive way to improve their confidence for navigating the career decision-making process. This is consistent with other research demonstrating the positive effects of a self-directed approach to developing a career in China (e.g., Wong & Slater, 2002; Yi et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2015). Our study thus suggests that even though Chinese university students rely more on influences from others in their career development compared to Western university students (e.g., Mau, 2000; Guan et al., 2016), following their authentic self nevertheless predicts positive outcomes in making career decisions. This result may be particularly meaningful for Chinese university students anticipating a job search in an extremely competitive job market. For them, these results suggest that an important way of gaining confidence in their career decision-making is to know their true self and act in accordance with it.

Limitations and Future Research

Our study should be considered in light of its limitations. One limitation of this research is that a disproportionately high percentage of our sample were women. We found that female university students reported lower CDSE than male university students, as has been found in other research using Chinese participants (e.g., Mau, 2000). However, in the present study, controlling for gender did not change the pattern of our results. Still, it would be preferable to recruit a more gender-balanced sample in subsequent research. Second, our results were analyzed using a three-wave longitudinal survey with time lags of 6 months. We expect this time lag is long enough to detect meaningful changes (as suggested by Collins, 2006), but it is possible that shorter (e.g., 1 or 2 months) or longer time lags may yield different results. Ideally, future research will test the influence of varied time lags with more than three waves to examine how broadly the pattern of results we found between authenticity and CDSE generalizes. Third, our results suggest a reciprocal relation between authenticity and CDSE, but our study did not examine the underlying mechanism of this relation. Future research should test potential mediators such as courage and intrinsic motivation. Finally, our study was conducted with Chinese university students. Because evidence was found that Chinese university students showed several differences in career decision-making style and CDSE compared to university students from other countries (e.g., Mau, 2000; Guan et al., 2016), caution should be used when generalizing our findings to Western populations or to nonstudents. We encourage scholars to further explore the longitudinal effect of authenticity on CDSE and other career-related outcomes across diverse cultural contexts.

Practical Implications

Making effective career decisions is one of the most important developmental tasks faced by traditional university students. This task seems particularly difficult and critical in the contemporary economic and educational climate in China. Along with rapid economic growth, China has a booming labor market that provides more job opportunities than there are available workers. The number of university graduates has also increased steadily, from 1.14 million in 2001 to 8.20 million in 2018 (Ministry of Education of China, 2018). Thus, for contemporary Chinese university students, their career decision process may differ markedly from that experienced by prior generations (e.g., Wong & Slater, 2002; Yi et al., 2010). Our study highlights an important personal factor for increasing university students’ confidence in dealing with the career decision task: to know the true self and act accordingly, thereby finally achieving a satisfying career decision. Put another way, university students’ self-efficacy in career decision-making in turn enhances their tendency to act authentically. Thus, even in a Chinese context, this self-directed approach could play a positive role in university students’ career development.

Counselors and university students should acknowledge the importance of this self-directed orientation. When working with clients who face career decision-making tasks and show lower confidence to solve these tasks, counselors could focus on encouraging them to engage in self-exploration and self-construction activities to obtain a more accurate and clear perception of the true self. To do so, counselors could use meaning-making techniques such as the self-construction strategy from career construction theory (CCT; Savickas, 2013). This strategy helps clients build meaningful personal and life portraits by identifying important life themes and telling their own career stories. It also offers a pathway through which counselors can promote clients’ ability to act as their true selves. In doing so, young adults will enhance their authentic self-perceptions and confidence within the career decision process and eventually increase their chances of achieving a satisfying career and life.

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Gender	—	—	—
2. Age	19.50	1.12	.03	—
3. Major	—	—	−.11*	−.14**	—
4. Authenticity T1	4.55	0.87	.01	−.06	.01	.84
5. Authenticity T2	4.54	0.85	.06	.06	.05	.54**	.86
6. Authenticity T3	4.47	0.76	−.06	.10	−.05	.53**	.60**	.84
7. CDSE T1	3.53	0.52	−.12*	−.04	.10*	.43**	.38**	.30**	.91
8. CDSE T2	3.58	0.47	−.14*	.10	.06	.29**	.49**	.42**	.53**	.91
9. CDSE T3	3.52	0.46	−.07	.14*	.08	.34**	.30**	.39**	.47**	.50**	.91

Models	S-Bχ²	df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR	ΔS-Bχ²	△df	△CFI
Configural invariance	488.45	213	.93	.91	.05	.09
Metric invariance	510.12	225	.93	.92	.05	.09	21.58*	12	−.002
Strong invariance	526.19	241	.93	.92	.05	.09	13.35	16	.000
Cross-lagged model—free lags	559.96	245	.92	.91	.05	.10
Cross-lagged model—equal lags	557.94	249	.93	.92	.05	.10	.96	4	.001

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (71702092) and the Humanity and Social Science Foundation of Ministry of Education of China (17XJC190008).

ORCID iD

Chunyu Zhang

Author Biographies

Chunyu Zhang is an associate professor of psychology in the School of Psychology at Shaanxi Normal University. He received his PhD from the Southwest University. His main research interests are career development, career calling, and meaningful work. He currently lives in Xi’an, China. In his leisure time, he likes to enjoy a lot of tasty food but also try hard to lose weight, cook Chinese food, and spend time with his family.

Jia Zhou, PhD, is currently working at School of Humanities and Management Science, Southwest Medical University, China. She earned her PhD in psychology at Southwest University, China. Her research interests include the death threat and defense mechanisms, and the influence of death mortality salience on decision-making. She spends her free time swimming and playing the piano.

Bryan J. Dik, PhD, is a professor of psychology at Colorado State University and also cofounder and chief science officer of jobZology. He earned his BA from Calvin College and PhD in counseling psychology from the University of Minnesota. He studies meaning and purpose in the workplace, calling and vocation in career development, and the intersection of faith and work. He lives in Fort Collins, CO, with his wife Amy and their four sons who keep them extremely active.

Xuqun You is a professor of psychology at Shaanxi Normal University. He received his PhD from the East China Normal University. His main research interests are personnel assessment, teacher’s career well-being, and aviation safety. He is the former chairman of Chinese Psychological Society. Currently, he is the president of Shaanxi Normal University.

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