Abstract
Job-searching following involuntary job loss is critical. However, as lifetime employment is a defining characteristic in Japan, few empirical studies have examined job-search behaviors after involuntary job loss. To fill this gap in the literature, a survey of 400 unemployed individuals explored the relationship between job-search behaviors and life satisfaction, including investigating self-efficacy, support, work volition, and dispositional optimism. Path analyses found that life satisfaction was predicted by optimism, job-search self-efficacy, and work volition, while job-search behaviors were facilitated by support and self-efficacy. No significant associations were found between job-search behaviors and life satisfaction. Results suggest that job-search interventions attempting to improve an individual’s optimism, feelings that the job search will be successful, and perceived support can facilitate job-search behaviors.
Involuntary unemployment resulting from downsizing and restructuring often leads to financial and psychological hardships for individuals. In addition, prolonged adverse effects of involuntary job loss on psychological well-being have been repeatedly reported, including depressive symptoms, perceived social injustice and health, and negative psychological well-being (e.g., Griep et al., 2015; McKee-Ryan et al., 2005; Paul et al., 2009; Pelzer et al., 2014; Stavrova et al., 2014).
The subjective experiences of unemployed people are strongly associated with coping, grief, and urgent job seeking (Thompson et al., 2017). Although job-search intentions and behaviors are critical to job attainment (Wanberg et al., 2005), diminished well-being often distracts from job-search behaviors, creating a barrier to successful re-employment. Therefore, to develop effective interventions for the unemployed and better counseling strategies, subjective experiences and related psychological processes should be explored to inform practitioners (Duffy et al., 2013).
The present study explores the job-search behaviors of unemployed individuals from a social cognitive perspective. Job searching is a self-regulatory process that involves emotion, cognition, and behavior (van Hooft et al., 2021). Therefore, a social cognitive approach is an appropriate theoretical framework. Furthermore, given the sparsity of the literature on job-search behaviors in Japan, this study primarily focuses on unemployed individuals in Japan.
Job-Search Behaviors and Their Correlates
Job-seeking after involuntary job loss can be daunting. Psychological interventions could help individuals enhance job-seeking attitudes and behaviors. For example, a review of 47 studies by Liu et al. (2014) showed that effective interventions focus on employment-seeking aspects such as job-search skills, self-efficacy, goal setting, and social support. Providing better psychological interventions for job-seeking individuals during involuntary unemployment requires understanding the correlates of job-search behaviors through empirical evidence.
The career self-management model (CSM), proposed by Lent and Brown (2013), explains job-search behaviors. The CSM is based on social cognitive career theory (SCCT) that incorporates major factors from the social cognitive approach, including self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and personal goals (Lent et al., 1994). The CSM complements the SCCT by explaining interactions between individuals’ career behaviors and their contexts and its applicability for job-search behaviors. For example, Lim et al. (2016) explained that self-efficacy influences the time and effort invested by job seekers, and outcome expectancies depend on job search and self-presentation skills.
Duffy et al. (2013) constructed and evaluated a job-search process model that determined job-search self-efficacy, social support, work volition, and optimism to further extend the CSM. They reported that in this process, while unemployed, feeling confident and efficacious was critical to finding a new job. Moreover, social support helps mitigate individuals’ distress. Work volition, or “the perceived capacity to make occupational decisions despite constraints” (Duffy et al., 2012, p. 400), leads to flexibility in career decision-making. Finally, Optimism is a dispositional aspect determining individual differences in job-search behaviors. Within unemployment literature, optimism has also been linked to job-search behaviors (Ślebarska et al., 2009; Wanberg, 1997).
Life satisfaction refers to a global evaluation of one’s life and is considered the primary component of subjective well-being (Kjell & Diener, 2021; Pavot & Diener, 1993). According to Pavot and Diener, whereas subjective well-being consists of emotional components, life satisfaction consists of cognitive components. In terms of career-related behaviors, Duffy et al. (2013) sought to explain life satisfaction in unemployed individuals based on the Lent (2004) model. This unifying theoretical model explains that personality traits, affective dispositions, goal-directed activity, self-efficacy, environmental supports and resources, and outcome expectations predict overall life satisfaction.
Psychological Studies on Unemployment in Japan
Few studies have examined the relationships between personality traits, job-search behaviors, and well-being among the unemployed. In Japan, lifetime employment has been prevalent in many private companies for decades. It is a defining feature of the employment system. For example, private companies customarily hire new college graduates permanently. Recent statistics from the Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training demonstrated that 61.7% of college graduates obtained permanent positions at private organizations (Takeuchi-Okuno, 2010). These employees work for the same organizations until the mandatory retirement age of 60 years old.
The difference in lifetime employment prevalence now versus in the past is debatable. Job mobility in Japan, however, remains low. Moreover, job turnover intention in Japan is the lowest among the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (Sousa-Poza & Henneberger, 2004). Consequently, characteristics of the unemployed and psychological aspects of job-search behaviors have only recently been explored. In one study, Baba et al. (2014) explored the subjective experiences of middle-aged (the 40s and 50s) and older men experiencing long-term unemployment (i.e., longer than 12 months) who were receiving support from an outplacement consulting company. Their grounded theory analysis extracted two themes: unintentional shifts in time spent working for the family and anxiety about never finding a new job. However, while qualitative studies provide an in-depth understanding of subjective experiences, those qualitative studies have limitations in showing predictive patterns of relationships among job-search process factors necessary for the development of effective interventions.
The unemployment rate in Japan has fallen as low as 2.6% in 2022 (The Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2022). However, practitioners and scholars remain concerned about the increased risk of unemployment-related mental health problems and suicides (Kuroki, 2010; Takahashi et al., 2012). Therefore, it is crucial to help individuals prepare for job-seeking after involuntary job loss. Thus, the current study investigates life satisfaction and job-search intention among the unemployed in Japan, addressing the gap in the literature regarding the relationships between subjective experiences, job-search behaviors, and individuals’ traits.
The Present Study
Our research questions were how job-search behaviors are determined from the perspective of social cognitive factors and psychological resources and how these behaviors are related to life satisfaction. Duffy et al.’s (2013) theoretical model was used. In a meta-analytic study on self-efficacy’s role in job-search behaviors, Kim et al. (2019) found that cultural values moderate relationships between self-efficacy and job-search behaviors. More specifically, they found that such a link was more robust in collectivistic cultures. Thus, focusing on job-search behaviors from a social cognitive perspective was thought relevant to delineating job-search behaviors in Japanese.
The study hypotheses (see Figure 1) were: Job-search behaviors are predicted by self-efficacy, support, and work volition (Hypothesis 1), which ultimately predicts life satisfaction (Hypothesis 2). Optimism, a psychological resource, is related to job-search self-efficacy and support and work volition (Hypothesis 3) and is directly related to life satisfaction (Hypothesis 4). Job-search support predicts job-search self-efficacy and behaviors, work volition, and life satisfaction (Hypothesis 5). The hypothesized model.
Method
Participants
The model was tested with individuals in their 30s and 40s to examine job-search intentions after involuntary job loss, while controlling the effects of age and job experience. Participants were 400 unemployed individuals in their 30s and 40s (range = 30–49 years; mean ± SD = 40.07 years ± 5.72), recruited via a web survey company, Shin Joho Center, from Japan. Of the participants, 191 were female (47.7%), and 209 were male (52.3%). Study participants were distributed across 45 prefectures out of 47. Although 75.8% of the participants had been unemployed for over 12 months, less than one-third had actively sought employment at the time of data collection.
Procedure
In the preliminary online survey, potential participants were screened based on their age and address to ensure a cross-section thereof that covered a wide geographical range (6 regions and 47 prefectures). Participants who answered “currently unemployed” and “seeking jobs,” were directed to the study information page, which described its purpose and ethical considerations, such as the voluntary and anonymous nature of participation. After providing informed consent, participants completed the main survey. Recruitment ended when the number of participants reached 400. The present study was approved by the Ethics Committee at the authors’ institution (#2014–34).
Instruments
The questionnaire included the measures described below. Back-translation was implemented for all scales except life satisfaction and optimism, for which Japanese versions were already developed. After original items in English were translated into Japanese by authors, items were back-translated into English by a translator with bilingual fluency in English and Japanese. A native English speaker compared the back-translated items to the original ones. The above procedure was continued until all the forward translated items matched the original ones. Then, the average item scores were used as a composite score.
Job-Search Support
Perceived job-search support was evaluated through the following three items, devised by Duffy et al. (2013): “My family provides support for my job-search process”; “My friends provide support for my job-search process”; and “My co-workers/former co-workers provide support for my job-search process.” Participants responded using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Duffy et al. reported that the scale’s internal consistency reliability was α = .72.
Life Satisfaction
The Japanese version of the five-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) was used to measure subjective well-being (Oishi, 2009; initially developed by Diener et al., 1985). Internal consistencies of the Japanese version in the form of Cronbach’s α, were fairly high and scale validity was confirmed in terms of correlations with positive emotions in daily life, r = .54–.70 (Oishi, 2009). Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Optimism
The Japanese version of the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R; Sakamoto & Tanaka, 2002), created by Scheier et al. (1994), measured dispositional optimism (positive expectations for the future). The LOT-R includes 10 items (including four filler items), each rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Its psychometric properties were examined and reported by Nakano (2004).
Job-Search Self-Efficacy Scale
Job-search self-efficacy refers to beliefs about successfully performing specific job-search behaviors and obtaining employment. The 10-item Job-Search Self-Efficacy Scale used by Duffy (2013), originally devised by Saks and Ashforth (1999), was translated into Japanese and back-translated. Participants responded on a 10-point Likert scale from 1 (not confident at all), to 10 (totally confident). The scale includes items such as: “Use social networks to obtain job leads” and “Be successful in your job search.” Details of the validity and reliability of the scale are reported elsewhere (Saks & Ashforth, 1999; Zikic & Saks, 2009).
Work Volition
Work volition addresses perceived occupational decision-making ability. This study used the Work Volition Scale (WVS) (Duffy et al., 2012) consisting of 13 items. Examples include “I’ve been able to choose the jobs I have wanted,” and “‘Due to my financial situation, I need to take any job I can find.” Participants rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Reliability and validity are reported in Duffy et al.’ (2012) study.
Job Search
Participants’ engagement in job-search behaviors was measured with the Job-Search Behavior Scale (Blau, 1994), assessing 12 job-search behaviors, including two subscales of preparatory and active job-searching. Participants reported how frequently they engaged in these behaviors over the previous 3 months on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from never (0 times) to very frequently (at least 10 times). According to Blau (1994), internal consistencies for the subscales were .79–.80.
Data Analyses
The primary goal of data analyses was to test the hypothesized model (Figure 1) using path analyses. We obtained descriptive statistics prior to path analyses and compared active to non-active job seekers. Path analyses were initially performed with the entire sample to evaluate the model. A model with a comparative fit index (CFI) of .95 or higher and a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of .08 or lower was considered to be an excellent fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Following the primary path analysis, multi-group path analyses were performed to detect and examine any differences between active and non-active job seekers. The Benjamini–Hochberg correction was used to control Type I error resulting from multiple post-hoc pairwise comparisons. SPSS and SPSS AMOS Version 25 were used for the analyses.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Differences Between Active Job Seekers and Non-active Job Seekers.
Correlations Among Variables.
Note. **p < .01, *p < .05.
Model Testing
Bivariate correlations among variables were moderate and significant except for those between job-search behaviors and optimism and work volition, indicating that an assumption of multivariate analyses was met. The results were consistent with the findings of Duffy et al. (2013) (Figure 2(a)); job-search support and job-search self-efficacy were important for active job-search behaviors (β = .12, p = .018; β = .26, p < .001, respectively). Further, work volition had a negative relationship with job-search behaviors (β = −.13, p = .017). The final model accounted for 40% of the variance of life satisfaction with goodness-of-fit indices: χ2(1) = .01, p = .922; AGFI = 1.00; CFI = 1.00; and RMSEA < .001. Thus, the first hypothesis was partially supported. (a) Results from path analyses with the full sample. Note. Solid lines indicate a significant path; dotted lines indicate a non-significant path. (b) Results from multi-group comparisons between active and non-active job seekers. Note 1. Bold solid lines indicate significant paths for both groups; small solid lines indicate significant paths; and dotted lines indicate non-significant paths for both groups. The upper values for non-active seekers, the lower values for active seekers. Note 2. Fit indices of the non-constrained model and the constrained model were as follows: Non-constrained model: χ2 (2) = .294 (n.s.), AGFI = .995, CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = .000, AIC = 80.294. Constrained model: χ2 (16) = 33.663 (p < .05), AGFI = .931, CFI = .965, RMSEA = .053, AIC = 85.663.
Optimism, job-search support and self-efficacy, and work volition had significant positive effects on life satisfaction (β = .35, p < .001; β = .13, p = .001; β = .11, p = .027; and β = .25, p < .001, respectively), confirming Hypothesis 2. Optimism had a strong link (β = .35, p < .001) with life satisfaction, mediated by job-search–related factors. However, the link between job-search behaviors and life satisfaction was not significant. Therefore, Hypotheses 3 and 4 were confirmed. All paths except one, from job-search support to work volition, were significant; thus, the fifth hypothesis was partially supported.
Significant differences were detected in multiple variables between the two groups. Therefore, using AMOS to compare predictive patterns, simultaneous multi-group path analyses were performed for 118 active and 282 non-active seekers. The fit indices of our multi-group model indicated a good fit for both groups [χ2(2) = .294 (n.s.), AGFI = .995, CFI = 1.00, and RMSEA = .000], suggesting that the structure of our model was the same across groups (Figure 2(b)). Model parameter equality across the samples was assessed by comparing the constrained (parameters equal for active and non-active seekers) with the non-constrained model. A significant change was found in the chi-square value [Δχ2(14) = 33.37, p = .003], implying some differences in the model parameters. Fit indices of these models are noted in Figure 2(b). Pairwise parameter comparisons showed significant differences in path coefficients from job-search self-efficacy (z = 3.41, p adj < .01) and work volition (z = 3.47, p adj < .01) to life satisfaction, where padj refers to the Benjamini–Hochberg correction.
Overall, active and non-active seekers did not differ in their relationships based on the variables. Optimism was positively associated with life satisfaction and job-search self-efficacy in both groups (active job seekers β = .46, p < .001; non-active job seekers β = .29, p < .001). However, interesting differences emerged. Job-search self-efficacy was significantly associated with life satisfaction among active (β = .33, p < .001) but not among non-active seekers (β = .01, p = .925). In contrast, work volition was significantly associated with life satisfaction in non-active seekers alone (β = .38, p < .001).
Discussion
The present study examined job-search behaviors and life satisfaction among individuals experiencing involuntary unemployment in Japan. A model of life satisfaction of the unemployed (Duffy et al., 2013) was used as a theoretical guide. The results supported the model, in which optimism, job-search self-efficacy, and work volition predicted life satisfaction. Job-search behaviors were predicted by self-efficacy and support, implying that the CSM can explain job-search behaviors during unemployment in Japan. Consistent with Duffy et al.’s findings (2013), optimism was the strongest predictor of life satisfaction, while job-search behaviors had little influence on it. Work volition had an adverse impact on job-search behaviors.
While job-search behaviors are critical to re-employment, empirical findings indicate that they do not necessarily predict life satisfaction. For example, Duffy et al. (2013) concluded that goal-oriented behaviors might not predict psychological well-being. In addition, the job-search process often evokes anxiety owing to uncontrollability and uncertainty. Thus, it is unlikely to result in life satisfaction. Our study confirmed such findings; however, the interpretation must consider the number of active job seekers at the time of the survey.
Regarding optimism, our results corresponded with those of Hirokawa’s (2012) study, wherein resolving psychological distress was related to positive views and responses to job loss situations. More specifically, individuals’ perception of job loss as an opportunity for life transition mitigated psychological distress. Optimism may relate to cognitive appraisals of involuntary job loss and determine perceived job self-efficacy and life satisfaction.
Moreover, work volition had a negative relationship with job-search behaviors. This finding implies that high ratings for the ability to make occupational decisions indicated less likelihood of engaging in job-search behaviors, perhaps because individuals perceiving themselves as highly capable of making career decisions may feel hesitant to search for new jobs.
Comparisons between active and non-active job seekers revealed significant differences in life satisfaction, optimism, and job-search self-efficacy, but not in work volition. Active job seekers were more likely to be satisfied with their lives, be more optimistic, and have higher self-efficacy in searching for jobs compared with non-active job seekers. For non-active seekers, job-search self-efficacy was not related to life satisfaction, but work volition was. The opposite relationships were observed for active seekers. For non-active job seekers, believing that they are highly capable of making career decisions directly determines their mental health. In contrast, for active job seekers, feeling confident about searching for a job is more important. Given such differences, career counseling should focus on enhancing mental health during the job-search.
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
The present study has a few limitations. First, in the current model, the directionality of the relationships among variables may require further clarification. Overall, life satisfaction may determine job-search behaviors. Thorough model comparisons are required to determine the sophistication of conceptual models. Second, findings from the present study relied on cross-sectional data, and the proportion of active job seekers was relatively small. Future studies require different data collection strategies (e.g., data from government job service centers or individuals who register for unemployment insurance). A longitudinal design could better determine the directionality of variables.
Implications for Practice
Despite its limitations, the current study provides evidence for job-search behavior as a self-regulatory process, which can aid in career development and counseling unemployed individuals in Japan. Counseling interventions should focus on optimism, support, job-search self-efficacy, and work volition. Employment service centers should include teaching and expanding networks to support job-searching and application procedures. Furthermore, practitioners and counselors should facilitate job-search self-efficacy and work volition for those not actively job-hunting. Focusing on individuals’ career decisions and identifying barriers limiting career decisions may help individuals make decisions related to their re-employment. Intervention programs must include components that help improve mental health among the unemployed to facilitate life satisfaction.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI [Grant no. 24530857].
