In this article, Niklas Luhmann’s pessimistic view of steering [Steuerung] and planning in modern society is contrasted with Mario Bunge’s advocacy of ‘technoholodemocracy’ (or ‘integral democracy’) and some core ideas of the ‘critical social systems theory’ as developed by Christian Fuchs and others. Before that, the holistic leanings of Luhmann’s autopoietic approach, as exemplified by such notions as ‘structural coupling’ and ‘total exclusion’ [Totalausschluss], are briefly examined. I argue for a systems approach that is ontologically sound (that is to say, transcending both holism and individualism), with due consideration given to the role of human actors in designing, maintaining, improving, repairing or dismantling social systems. As the writings of Bunge and critical social systems theorists bear witness, a systems approach does not have to sacrifice human agency to blindly self-unfolding ‘social systems’.
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