Objective: This article addresses how stable functional disability statuses and disability transitions are related to change in depressive symptoms in the elderly. Method: The authors estimate longitudinal residual change models using two waves of data, 1986 and 1992, from the National Institute of Aging Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly, Duke University. Results: Both stable disability statuses and transitions in disability statuses are significantly related to change in depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies depression scale [CES D]). Stable disability statuses in strength and mobility, instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) items and activities of daily living (ADL) items have increasing effects on increment in CES-D scores by the follow-up. The onset of disability has stronger effects on change in CES-D scores than recovery. These effects also differ by types of transitions in disability statuses. Discussion: The authors discuss alternative interpretations of the findings and methodological concerns and also suggest avenues for future research.
Aneshensel, C. S., Frerichs, R. R., & Huba, G. J. (1984). Depression and physical illness: A multiwave, nonrecursive causal model. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 25, 350-371.
2.
Aneshensel, C. S., Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Zarit, S. H., & Whitlatch, C. J. (1995). Profiles in caregiving: The unexpected career. San Diego: Academic Press.
3.
Avison, W. R., & Turner, R. J. (1988). Stressful life events and depressive symptoms: Disaggregating the effects of acute stressors and chronic strains. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 253-264.
4.
Beckett, L. A., Brock, D. B., Lemke, J. H., Mendes de Leon, C. F., Guralnick, J. M., Fillenbaum, G. G., et al. (1996). Analysis of change in self-reported physical function among older persons in four population studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143, 766-778.
5.
Beekman, A. T., Kriegsman, D. M., Deeg, D. J., & van Tilburg, W. (1995). The association of physical health and depressive symptoms in the older population: Age and sex differences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 30, 32-38.
6.
Berkman, L. F., Berkman, C. S., Kasl, S., Freeman, D. H., Leo, L., Ostfeld, A. M., et al. (1986). Depressive symptoms in relation to physical health and functioning in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 124, 372-388.
7.
Blazer, D., Hughes, D., & George, L. K. (1987). Stressful life events and the onset of a generalized anxiety syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1178-1183.
8.
Blazer, D. G., Burhett, B., Service, C., & George, L. K. (1991). The association of age and depression among the elderly: An epidemiologic exploration. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 46, M210-M215.
9.
Bower, B. (2001). Depression linked to heart deaths. Science News, 159, 205-206.
10.
Bruce, M. L. (2001). Depression and disability in late life: Directions for future research. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 102-112.
11.
Bruce, M. L., Seeman, T. E., Merrill, S. S., & Blazer, D. G. (1994). The impact of depressive symptomatology on physical disability: MacArthur studies of successful aging. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1796-1799.
12.
Burke, P. J. (1991). Identity processes and social stress. American Sociological Review, 56, 836-849.
13.
Cavanaugh, S. A., Furlanetto, L. M., Creech, S. D., & Powell, L. H. (2001). Medical illness, past depression, and present depression: A predictive triad for in-hospital mortality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 43-49.
14.
Cohen, S., & Rodriguez, M. S. (1995). Pathways linking affective disturbances and physical disorders. Health Psychology, 14, 374-380.
15.
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. M. (1991). Stress and infectious disease in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 5-24.
16.
Crimmins, E. M., & Saito, Y. (1993). Getting better and getting worse: Transitions in functional status among older Americans. Journal of Aging & Health, 5, 3-36.
17.
DeGarmo, D. S., & Kitson, G. C. (1996). Identity relevance and disruption as predictors of psychological distress for widowed and divorced women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 983-997.
18.
Gatz, M., Johansson, B., Pedersen, N. L., Berg, S., & Reynolds, C. S. (1993). A cross-national self-report measure of depressive symptomatology. International Psychogeriatrics, 5, 147-156.
19.
George, L. K. (1996). Social and economic factors related to psychiatric disorders in late life. In E. W. Busse & D. G. Blazer (Ed.), Geriatric psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 139-154). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
20.
George, L. K., Blazer, D. G., Hughes, D. C., & Fowler, N. (1989). Social support and the outcome of major depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 478-485.
21.
George, L. K., & Fillenbaum, G. G. (1985). The OARS methodology: A decade of experience in geriatric assessment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 33, 607-615.
22.
Guralnik, J. M., & LaCroix, A. Z. (1992). Assessing physical function in older populations. In R. B. Wallace & R. F. Woolson (Ed.), The epidemiologic study of the elderly (pp. 159-181). New York: Oxford University Press.
23.
Hays, J.C., Landerman, L.R., George, L.K., Flint, E.P., Koenig, H.G., Land, K. C., et al. (1998). Social correlates of the dimensions of depression in the elderly. Journal of Gerontology, 53, 31-39.
24.
Kane, R. A., & Kane, R. L. (1981). Assessing the elderly: A practical guide to measurement. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
25.
Katz, S., Ford, A. B., Moskowitz, R. W., Jackson, B. A., & Jaffe, M. W. (1963). Studies of illness in the aged: The index of ADL, a standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. Journal of the American Medical Association, 12, 914-919.
26.
Kennedy, G. J., Kelman, H. R., & Thomas, C. (1990). The emergence of depressive symptoms in late life: The importance of declining health and increasing disability. Journal of Community Health, 15, 93-104.
27.
Kessler, R. C., Foster, C., Webster, P. S., & House, J. S. (1992). The relationship between age and depressive symptoms in two national surveys. Psychology and Aging, 7, 119-126.
28.
Kessler, R. C., & Greenberg, D. F. (1981). Linear panel analysis: Models of quantitative change. New York: Academic Press.
29.
Koenig, H. G., & Blazer, D. G. (1992). Mood disorders and suicide. In J. E. Birren & R. B. Sloane (Ed.), Handbook of mental health and aging (2nd ed., pp. 380-400). New York: Academic Press.
30.
Koenig, H. G., Pappas, P., Holsinger, T., & Bachar, J. R. (1995). Assessing diagnostic approaches in medically ill older adults. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 43, 472-478.
31.
La Gory, M., & Fitzpatrick, K. (1992). The effects of environmental context on elderly depression. Journal of Aging and Health, 4, 459-479.
32.
Landerman, L. R., George, L. K., Campbell, R. T., & Blazer, D. G. (1989). Alternative models of the stress buffering hypothesis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 625-642.
33.
Lenze, E. J., Rogers, J. C., Martire, L. M., Mulsant, B. H., Rollman, B. L., Dew, M. A., et al. (2001). The association of late-life depression and anxiety with physical disability: A review of the literature and prospectus for future research. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 113-135.
34.
Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
35.
Lynch, S. M., & George, L. K. (2002). Interlocking trajectories of loss-related events and depressive symptoms among elders. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 57, S117-S125.
36.
Manton, K. G., & Gu, X. (2001). Changes in the prevalence of chronic disability in the United States Black and non-Black population above age 65 from 1982 to 1999. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 98, 6354-6359.
37.
Manton, K. G., & Stallard, E. (1994). Medical demography: Interaction of disability dynamics and mortality. In L. G. Martin & S. H. Preston (Ed.), Demography of aging (pp. 217-278). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
38.
Manton, K. G., & Stallard, E. (1997). Health and disability differences among racial and ethnic groups. In L. G. Martin & B. J. Soldo (Ed.), Racial and ethnic differences in the health of older Americans (pp. 43-104). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
39.
Manton, K. G., Stallard, E.,& Corder, L. (1997a). Changes in the age dependence of morality and disability: cohort and other determinants. Demography, 34, 135-137.
40.
Manton, K. G., Stallard, E., & Corder, L. (1997b). Chronic disability trends in elderly United States populations: 1982-1994. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 94, 2593-2598.
41.
Mendes de Leon, C. F., Glass, T. A., Beckett, L. A., Seeman, T. A., Evans, D. A., & Berkman, L. A. (1999). Social networks and disability transitions across eight intervals of yearly data in the New Haven EPESE. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 54, S162-S172.
42.
Miech, R. A., & Shanahan, M. J. (2000). Socioeconomic status and depression over the life course. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 162-176.
43.
Nagi, S. Z. (1976). An epidemiology of disability among adults in the United States. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly: Health and Society, 54, 439-468.
44.
Ormel, J., Rijsdijk, F. V., Sullivan, M., van Sonderen, E., & Kempen, G. I. J. M. (2002). Temporal and reciprocal relationship between IADL/ADL disability and depressive symptoms in late life. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57B, P338-P347.
45.
Palmore, E. B., & Burchett, B. M. (1997). Predictors of disability in the final year of life. Journal of Aging and Health, 9, 283-297.
46.
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 337-356.
47.
Penninx, B. W. J. H., Leveille, S., Ferrucci, L., van Eijk, J. T. M., & Guralnik, J. M. (1999). Exploring the effect of depression on physical disability: Longitudinal evidence from the established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1346-1352.
48.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
49.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
50.
Rosow, I., & Breslau, N. (1966). A Guttman health scale for the aged. Journal of Gerontology, 21, 557.
51.
Roth, D. L., Haley, W. E., Owen, J. E., Clay, O. J., & Goode, K. T. (2001). Latent growth models of the longitudinal effects of dementia caregiving: A comparison of African American and White family caregivers. Psychology and Aging, 16, 427-436.
52.
Smith, L. A., Branch, L. G., Scherr, P. A., Wetle, T., Evans, D. A., Hebert, L., et al. (1990). Short-term variability of measures of physical function in older people. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 993-998.
53.
Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next?Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 53-79.
54.
Turner, R. J., & Noh, S. (1988). Physical disability and depression: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 23-37.
55.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1996). Population projections of the United States by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: 1995-2050. Current Population Reports Series, P24-P1130.
56.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1997). Americans with disabilities: 1994-1995. Current Population Reports Series, P70.
57.
Zarit, S. H., Femia, E. E., Gatz, M., & Johansson, B. (1999). Prevalence, incidence and correlates of depression in the oldest old: The OCTO study. Aging and Mental Health, 3, 119-128.
