Objective: To determine the prevalence of olfactory impairment and its associations with neurodegenerative and other conditions in older adults. Method: 1,636 participants (≥60 years) enrolled in the Blue Mountains Eye Study (2002-2004) were analyzed. Olfaction was assessed by the San Diego Odor Identification Test and used to classify mild impairment (4 or 5), moderate impairment (≤3), or any impairment (<6). Results: Prevalent olfactory impairment was 27.0%. After multivariate adjustment, the likelihood increased twofold with each decade of life after 60 years and was higher in men than women. Olfactory impairment and body mass index (BMI) were inversely associated. Persons with Parkinson’s disease and cognitive impairment had an increased likelihood of mild and moderate olfactory impairment. Discussion: Over one in four older persons had olfactory impairment. The prevalence was higher in men, increased with age and decreasing BMI, and was higher among persons with Parkinson’s disease and cognitive impairment.
Attebo, K., Mitchell, P., & Smith, W. ( 1996). Visual acuity and the causes of visual loss in Australia . The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology, 103, 357-364.
2.
Bramerson, A., Johansson, L., Ek, L., Nordin, S., & Bende, M. ( 2004). Prevalence of olfactory dysfunction: The Skövde population-based study. Laryngoscope, 114, 733-737.
3.
Deems, D.A., Doty, R.L., Settle, R.G., Moore-Gillon, V., Shaman, P., Mester, A.F., et al. (1991). Smell and taste disorders: A study of 750 patients from the University of Pennsylvania Smell and Taste Center. Archives of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, 117, 519-528.
Doty, R.L. ( 2007). Office procedures for quantitative assessment of olfactory function. American Journal of Rhinology, 21, 460-473.
6.
Doty, R.L., Shaman, P., Applebaum, S.L., Giberson, R., Siksorski, L., & Rosenberg, L. ( 1984). Smell identification ability: Changes with age. Science, 226, 1441-1443.
7.
Double, K.L., Rowe, D.B., Hayes, M., Chan, D.K.Y., Blackie, J., Corbett, A., et al. (2003). Identifying the pattern of olfactory deficits in Parkinson disease using the brief smell identification test. Archives of Neurology, 60, 545-549.
8.
Ekman, G., Berglund, B., Berglund, U., & Lindvall, T. ( 1967). Perceived intensity of odor as a function of time of adaptation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 8, 177-186.
9.
Graves, A.B., Bowen, J.D., Rajaram, L., McCormick, W.C., McCurry, S.M., Schellenberg, G.D., et al. (1999). Impaired olfaction as a marker for cognitive decline: Interaction with apolipoprotein E epsilon4 status. Neurology, 53, 1480-1487.
10.
Griep, M.I., Van der Niepen, P., Sennesael, J.J., Mets, T.F., Massart, D.L., & Verbeelen, D.L. (1997). Odour perception in chronic renal disease. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 12, 2093-2098.
11.
Harris, R., Davidson, T.M., Murphy, C., Gilbert, P.E., & Chen, M. ( 2006). Clinical evaluation and symptoms of chemosensory impairment: One thousand consecutive cases from the Nasal Dysfunction Clinic in San Diego . American Journal of Rhinology, 20(1), 101-108.
12.
Kivipelto, M., Helkala, E.L., Laakso, M.P., Hänninen, T., Hallikainen, M., Alhainen, K., et al. (2002). Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele, elevated midlife total cholesterol level, and high midlife systolic blood pressure are independent risk factors for late-life Alzheimer disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 137, 149-155.
13.
Kivipelto, M., Ngandu, T., Fratiglioni, L., Viitanen, M., Kåreholt, I., Winblad, B., et al. (2005). Obesity and vascular risk factors at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology, 62, 1556-1560.
14.
Kohler, C.G., Moberg, P.J., Gur, R.E., O’Connor, M.J., Sperling, M.R., & Doty, R.L. ( 2001). Olfactory dysfunction in schizophrenia and temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 14(2), 83-88.
15.
Mackay-Sim, A., Johnston, A.N., Owen, C., & Burne, T.H.J. ( 2006). Olfactory ability in the healthy population: Reassessing presbyosmia. Chemical Senses, 31, 763-771.
16.
Mesholam, R.I., Moberg, P.J., Mahr, R.N., & Doty, R.L. ( 1998). Olfaction in neurodegenerative disease: A meta-analysis of olfactory functioning in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases . Archives of Neurology, 55(1), 84-90.
17.
Morgan, C.D., Nordin, S., & Murphy, C. ( 1995). Odor identification as an early marker for Alzheimer’s disease: Impact of lexical functioning and detection sensitivity. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 17, 793-803.
18.
Murphy, C. ( 1985). Cognitive and chemosensory influences on age-related changes in the ability to identify blended foods. Journal of Gerontology, 40(1), 47-52.
19.
Murphy, C., Schubert, C.R., Cruickshanks, K.J., Klein, B.E.K., Klein, R., & Nondahl, D.M. ( 2002). Prevalence of olfactory impairment in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 2307-2312.
20.
Nordin, S., Monsch, A.U., & Murphy, C. ( 1995). Unawareness of smell loss in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease: Discrepancy between self-reported and diagnosed smell sensitivity . Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 50, 187-192.
21.
Ross, G.W., Petrovitch, H., Abbott, R.D., Tanner, C.M., Popper, J., Masaki, K., et al. (2008). Association of olfactory dysfunction with risk for future Parkinson’s disease. Annals of Neurology , 63, 167-173.
22.
Simchen, U., Koebnick, C., Hoyer, S., Issanchou, S., & Zunft, H.-J.F. (2006). Odour and taste sensitivity is associated with body weight and extent of misreporting of body weight. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60, 698-705.
23.
Tung, T.H., Chen, S.J., Liu, J.H., Lee, F.L., Li, A.F., Shyong, M.P., et al. (2005). A community-based follow-up study on diabetic retinopathy among type 2 diabetics in Kinmen. European Journal of Epidemiology, 20, 317-323.
24.
Wang, Q.S., Tian, L., Huang, Y.L., Qin, S., He, L.Q., & Zhou, J.N. ( 2002). Olfactory identification and apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele in mild cognitive impairment. Brain Research, 951(1), 77-81.
