Abstract
The U.S. philanthropic narrative often centers on white, male elites like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, overshadowing African American contributors like Bridget “Biddy” Mason and Robert F. Smith. In his book, Madam C. J. Walker’s Gospel of Giving: Black Women’s Philanthropy during Jim Crow, Tyrone McKinley Freeman seeks to challenge this landscape. Through qualitative methods using historical and archival research, the book comprehensively explores the life and philanthropic legacy of Sarah Breedlove, a single mother of Lelia and washerwoman turned entrepreneur, later known as Madam C. J. Walker, the first self-made female millionaire in the United States.
The book is written in six chapters, each delving into different aspects of Walker’s philanthropy and offering valuable insights into her motivations and impact. Chapter 1 explores Walker’s early life experiences and the influence of Black women’s philanthropic networks on her sense of responsibility and moral imagination. It highlights her integration of business and philanthropy, forging diverse means of giving that would shape her philanthropic journey. In Chapter 2, Walker’s cosmetology company is examined as a commercial and philanthropic enterprise, providing opportunities to those marginalized by discriminatory labor practices. Chapter 3 focuses on Walker’s commitment to education through establishing vocational beauty schools, paralleling Booker T. Washington’s industrial education model. Chapter 4 delves into Walker’s activism, inspired by leading Black women’s organizations, and her efforts to empower her agents to engage in lasting charity and advocacy work in their communities. Chapter 5 presents the different gifts provided by Walker to Black individuals and organizations, which reflected her motivations and significant financial wealth during the early 1910s, demonstrating how Black philanthropy flowed through communities nationwide. Finally, Chapter 6 offers a detailed exploration of Walker’s last will and testament.
Throughout the book, Freeman aims to contest common beliefs about philanthropy, specifically, challenging the notion that it is a numbers game and exclusive to the wealthy, white male elite. He counters stereotypes by showcasing women’s significant contributions, challenging the perception that women’s giving is solely grounded in leisure and inheritance. In addition, he seeks to reclaim the narrative that African Americans are primarily the beneficiaries of philanthropy rather than agents, with Madam C. J. Walker as a prime example. By broadening the definition of philanthropy, the book offers a fresh perspective beyond traditional portrayals of philanthropists.
One way that Freeman effectively achieves his aim is by examining Walker’s 1914 letter to Booker T. Washington, where she writes: “I am not like your white friends who have waited until they were rich and then help, but have in proportion to my success, I have reached out and I am helping others” (p. 2). The statement underscores Walker’s hardworking and intentional efforts to uplift the Black community, particularly Black women, challenging assumptions of leisure and inheritance in women’s philanthropy.
While Freeman challenges the notion of white people as the primary agents of philanthropy through Walker and other examples such as the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church and club women who socialized Walker into the mode of giving (p. 22), he does not fully confront the perception of Black individuals as primary recipients. Walker’s philanthropic endeavors throughout the book demonstrate her commitment to advancing the Black race, primarily benefiting Black women. This narrative, however, may inadvertently reinforce stereotypes, overlooking the existence of poor white individuals during the Jim Crow era despite acknowledging the privileges afforded to the white race in society (pp. 106, 158, 160). An explicit acknowledgment or discussion of other philanthropic efforts benefiting non-Black races or white recipients would have provided a more comprehensive analysis of philanthropic dynamics and Walker’s impact. For instance, on page 156, I would have appreciated further discussion on the attitudes of Black philanthropic organizations toward poor white people. Walker’s plans to establish a beauty school in South Africa and her attempt to give food to political prisoners in Haiti demonstrate her organization’s capacity to extend its philanthropic reach beyond its immediate community (pp. 152, 154).
Introducing Walker as a poor Black female (p. 25) and the assertion “. . . one who was not only sympathetic to the Black plight but had lived it and yearned for the opportunity of formal education” (p. 103) underscores the notion that individuals with lived experiences are often more compassionate and effective advocates for marginalized groups. This aligns with the theory of “experiential expertise,” which suggests that personal experiences inform a deeper understanding and commitment to social change (Kumashiro, 2000). Also, Walker, in an interview, said she gave back to AME “in remembrance of the kindness that was shown her daughter there” (p. 162), aligning with the idea that the beneficiaries of philanthropy often tend to give back to society (C. Smith & Davidson, 2014). Freeman asserts that within the African American community, addressing societal needs takes precedence over engaging in other forms of charitable acts, emphasizing a focus on giving to solve problems.
The literature on philanthropy often portrays affluent white donors as determining societal needs and imposing their preferences onto communities without proper needs assessment (Moyo, 2009; A. Smith, 2017). This approach can lead to nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations aligning their missions with donor interests rather than community needs, resulting in limited and short-term impacts. However, this is not universally true, as values-based philanthropy may also play a significant role. Freeman’s analysis of Walker’s philanthropy, for instance, highlights how Walker, a Black woman, allocated her resources to causes she valued, particularly those supporting Black women. This portrayal emphasizes philanthropy as driven by individual convictions or values rather than racial dynamics and the quest to control, though outcomes may vary.
At the heart of Walker’s philanthropy was championing educational causes for African Americans since she believed that this is a way to uplift the race. She also aligned this with marketing her business as she, for example, tells a school principal in a letter shared in the book that if the school adopts her beauty culture curriculum, “I could not only give hundreds of dollars . . . but [t]housands of dollars” (pp. 4–5). This reveals a pragmatic and potentially self-serving aspect of her philanthropy and challenges Freeman’s portrayal of her philanthropy as solely driven by educational advancement, raising questions about power dynamics and ulterior motives. It also underscores the need to contextualize her actions within the broader socio-political landscape. Finally, Walker conflating her business goals with her charitable endeavors is an early example of philanthrocapitalism. Philanthrocapitalism refers to a significant shift in which charities opt to utilize private cash to tackle social issues through business-oriented approaches (Mushita & Thompson, 2021).
The book is valuable for donors, fundraisers, historians, scholars, researchers, educators, and policymakers interested in African American philanthropy, women’s history, social entrepreneurship, and gender and race studies. It provides insights into Walker’s strategies for actionable community empowerment and economic development, informing community development and inclusive growth strategies. Walker’s grassroots approach to addressing poverty and societal issues, leaving sustained impacts on beneficiaries, is exemplary, and stands in stark contrast to many contemporary philanthropic practices (A. Smith, 2017). Most notable are the three tenets of Walker’s “Gospel of Giving” inspired by her black female mentors, as highlighted by Freeman (p. 7):
Give as you can to be helpful to others.
Spare no useful means that may be helpful to others.
Give as your means increase to help others.
Walker also adheres to the belief that “the Lord Loves a Cheerful Giver,” emphasizing Christian values’ influence on U.S. philanthropy’s genesis (Gross, 2003).
Freeman’s insightful analysis of Walker’s historiography resonates widely and provides valuable insights for nonprofit studies and organizational capacity-building. The book’s recognition, including prestigious awards like the 2021 Association of Fundraising Professionals’ Skystone Partners Prize for Research on Fundraising and Philanthropy, and the 2023 Peter Dobkin Hall History of Philanthropy Prize from ARNOVA, is well deserved and underscores its merit and substantial contribution to the field. Overall, its rigorous scholarship and insightful exploration make it a compelling read.
