Scaffolds are of great importance to the success of tissue engineering. Poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) acid is one of the most commonly used biopolymers. This study develops a novel low-temperature deposition machine using screw extrusion to fabricate poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) acid scaffolds. The screw extrusion process of poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) acid is analysed, and the relationship between flow rate and processing parameters is examined. This relationship provides guidelines for optimizing the processing parameters. The major components and design strategy of the fabrication system are introduced. Measures are proposed to control the leakage of materials, and optimal processing parameters are determined. The machine is also equipped with a double-screw extrusion nozzle system; preliminary results demonstrate its capacity to fabricate gradient scaffolds. Porous structure characterization using mercury porosimetry demonstrates that the fabrication system is able to fabricate poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) acid scaffolds that are both macroporous and microporous.
FerrisCJGilmoreKGWallaceGG. Biofabrication: an overview of the approaches used for printing of living cells. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol2013; 97: 4243–4258.
LiuCXiaZCzernuszkaJT. Design and development of three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering. Chem Eng Res Des2007; 85: 1051–1064.
6.
BettingerCJWeinbergEJKuligKM. Three-dimensional microfluidic tissue-engineering scaffolds using a flexible biodegradable polymer. Adv Mater2005; 18: 165–169.
7.
ChangCCBolandEDWilliamsSK. Direct-write bioprinting three-dimensional biohybrid systems for future regenerative therapies. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2011; 98: 160–170.
8.
MironovVPrestwichGForgacsG. Bioprinting living structures. J Mater Chem2007; 17: 2054–2060.
9.
MironovVReisNDerbyB. Bioprinting: a beginning. Tissue Eng2006; 12: 631–634.
10.
OzbolatITYuY. Bioprinting toward organ fabrication: challenges and future trends. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng2013; 60: 691–699.
11.
MelchelsFPFeijenJGrijpmaDW. A poly(D,L-lactide) resin for the preparation of tissue engineering scaffolds by stereolithography. Biomaterials2009; 30: 3801–3809.
12.
SeckTMMelchelsFPFeijenJ. Designed biodegradable hydrogel structures prepared by stereolithography using poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(D,L-lactide)-based resins. J Control Release2010; 148: 34–41.
13.
CaoTHoKHTeohSH. Scaffold design and in vitro study of osteochondral coculture in a three-dimensional porous polycaprolactone scaffold fabricated by fused deposition modeling. Tissue Eng2003; 9: S103–S112.
14.
HsuSHYenHJTsengCS. Evaluation of the growth of chondrocytes and osteoblasts seeded into precision scaffolds fabricated by fused deposition manufacturing. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2007; 80: 519–527.
15.
KalitaSJBoseSHosickHL. Development of controlled porosity polymer-ceramic composite scaffolds via fused deposition modeling. Mat Sci Eng C2003; 23: 611–620.
16.
KorpelaJKokkariAKorhonenH. Biodegradable and bioactive porous scaffold structures prepared using fused deposition modeling. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2013; 101: 610–619.
17.
MasoodSHAlamaraK. Development of scaffold building units and assembly for tissue engineering using fused deposition modelling. Adv Mat Res (Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies, Pts 1 and 2) 2010; 83–86: 269–274.
18.
YenHJTsengCSHsuSH. Evaluation of chondrocyte growth in the highly porous scaffolds made by fused deposition manufacturing (FDM) filled with type II collagen. Biomed Microdevices2009; 11: 615–624.
19.
ZeinIHutmacherDWTanKC. Fused deposition modeling of novel scaffold architectures for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials2002; 23: 1169–1185.
20.
ChungHJeeHDasS. Selective laser sintering of PCL/TCP composites for tissue engineering scaffolds. J Mech Sci Technol2010; 24: 241–244.
21.
ShuaiCFengPCaoC. Processing and characterization of laser sintered hydroxyapatite scaffold for tissue engineering. Biotechnol Bioproc E2013; 18: 520–527.
22.
ShuaiCJGaoCDNieY. Structure and properties of nano-hydroxypatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering with a selective laser sintering system. Nanotechnology2011; 22: 285703.
23.
ShuaiCJMaoZZLuHB. Fabrication of porous polyvinyl alcohol scaffold for bone tissue engineering via selective laser sintering. Biofabrication2013; 5: 025004.
24.
WilliamsJMAdewunmiASchekRM. Bone tissue engineering using polycaprolactone scaffolds fabricated via selective laser sintering. Biomaterials2005; 26: 4817–4827.
25.
ZhouWYLeeSHWangM. Selective laser sintering of tissue engineering scaffolds using poly(L-lactide) microspheres. Key Eng Mat2007; 334–335: 1225–1228.
26.
GbureckUHolzelTThullR. Preparation of nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite scaffolds by 3D powder printing. Cytotherapy2006; 8: 14.
27.
LeeMDunnJCYWuBM. Scaffold fabrication by indirect three-dimensional printing. Biomaterials2005; 26: 4281–4289.
28.
LeukersBGulkanHIrsenSH. Hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering made by 3D printing. J Mater Sci Mater Med2005; 16: 1121–1124.
29.
LeukersBGulkanHIrsenSH. Biocompatibility of ceramic scaffolds for bone replacement made by 3D printing. Materwiss Werksttech2005; 36: 781–787.
30.
LiuCZSachlosEWahlDA. On the manufacturability of scaffold mould using a 3D printing technology. Rapid Prototyping J2007; 13: 163–174.
31.
LiuLXiongZYanYN. Porous morphology, porosity, mechanical properties of poly(alpha-hydroxy acid)-tricalcium phosphate composite scaffolds fabricated by low-temperature deposition. J Biomed Mater Res A2007; 82: 618–629.
32.
LiuLXiongZYanYN. Multinozzle low-temperature deposition system for construction of gradient tissue engineering scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2009; 88: 254–263.
33.
LiuLXiongZZhangRJ. A novel osteochondral scaffold fabricated via multi-nozzle low-temperature deposition manufacturing. J Bioact Compat Polym2009; 24: 18–30.
34.
LiuLYanYNXiongZ. A novel poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-collagen hybrid scaffold fabricated via multi-nozzle low-temperature deposition. Virtual and Rapid Manufacturing, Florida, USA: CRC Press, 2007, pp. 57–61.
35.
XiongZYanYNWangSG. Fabrication of porous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering via low-temperature deposition. Scripta Mater2002; 46: 771–776.
36.
XuMGLiYLSuoHR. Fabricating a pearl/PLGA composite scaffold by the low-temperature deposition manufacturing technique for bone tissue engineering. Biofabrication2010; 2: 025002.
37.
LinSPZhaoHLiuF. Plastics processing rheology and its application. Beijing, China: National Defence Industry Press, 2008, pp.92–104.
