In this study, a low-cost and adaptable isometric strength measurement and exercise development system are described. The implemented system consists of mechanical structure, force measurement sensor, electronic circuit, and computer software. Isometric-isotonic (via spring resistance) strength analysis and various exercise programs can be applied with the system. The developed system has a lower cost compared to its counterparts in the literature and has a structure that can be adapted to different machines and measuring methods. The operability and reliability of the isometric strength measurement and exercise development system have been proven by calibration tests.
AbernethyPWilsonGLoganP. Strength and power assessment: issues, controversies and challenges. Sport Med1995; 19: 401–417.
2.
WinterEMFowlerN. Exercise defined and quantified according to the Système International d’Unités. J Sports Sci2009; 27: 447–460.
3.
WilsonGJMurphyAJ. The use of isometric tests of muscular function in athletic assessment. Sport Med1996; 22: 19–37.
4.
MetterEJConwitRTobinJ, et al. Age-associated loss of power and strength in the upper extremities in women and men. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Sci Med Sci1997; 52: 267–276.
5.
AraiTObuchiSShibaY, et al. The feasibility of measuring joint angular velocity with a gyro-sensor. Arch Phys Med Rehabil2008; 89: 95–99.
6.
SkeltonDAGreigCADaviesJM, et al. Strength, power and related functional ability of healthy people aged 65-89 years. Age Ageing1994; 23: 371–377.
7.
DaviesCTMWhiteMJYoungK. Electrically evoked and voluntary maximal isometric tension in relation to dynamic muscle performance in elderly male subjects, aged 69 years. Eur J Appl Physiol1983; 51: 37–43.
8.
JonathanBKielyDKSethH, et al. The relationship between leg power and physical performance in mobility-limited older people. J Am Geriatr Soc2002; 50: 461–467.
9.
De VitoGBernardiMForteR, et al. Determinants of maximal instantaneous muscle power in women aged 50-75 years. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol1998; 78: 59–64.
10.
BoscoCKomiPV. Influence of aging on the mechanical behavior of leg extensor muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol1980; 45: 209–219.
11.
ToshimiSJonathanFBRogerAF. Muscle power of the ankle flexors predicts functional performance in community-dwelling older women toshimi. J Am Geriatr Soc2001; 49: 1161–1167.
12.
ThelenDGSchultzABAlexanderNB, et al. Effects of age on rapid ankle torque development. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Sci Med Sci1996; 51: 226–232.
13.
FoldvariMClarkMLavioletteLC, et al. Association of muscle power with functional status in community-dwelling elderly women. J Gerontol Med Sci2000; 55: M192–M199.
14.
ThelenDGAshton-MillerJASchultzAB, et al. Do neural factors underlie age differences in rapid ankle torque development?J Am Geriatr Soc1996; 44: 804–808.
15.
FiataroneMAMarksECRyanND, et al. High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians: effects on skeletal muscle. JAMA J Am Med Assoc1990; 263: 3029–3034.
16.
HurleyBF. Age, gender, and muscular strength. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Sci Med Sci1995; 50A: 41–44.
17.
YoumansSRStierwaltJAG. Measures of tongue function related to normal swallowing. Dysphagia2006; 21: 102–111.
18.
WadsworthCTNielsenDHCorcoranDS, et al. Interrater reliability of hand-held dynamometry: effects of rater gender, body weight, and grip strength. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther1992; 16: 74–81.
19.
YoumansSRYoumansGLStierwaltJAG. Differences in tongue strength across age and gender: is there a diminished strength reserve?Dysphagia2009; 24: 57–65.
20.
HarboTBrincksJAndersenH. Maximal isokinetic and isometric muscle strength of major muscle groups related to age, body mass, height, and sex in 178 healthy subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol2012; 112: 267–275.
21.
BlaisLTrillesF. The progress achieved by judokas after strength training with a judo-specific machine. J Sport Sci Med2006; 5: 132–135.
22.
YilmazS. Pulling forces in different judo stances in laboratory conditions. Arch Budo Sci Martial Arts Extrem Sport2015; 11: 73–80.
23.
BlaisLTrillesFLacoutureP. Three-dimensional joint dynamics and energy expenditure during the execution of a judo throwing technique (Morote Seoï Nage). J Sports Sci2007; 25: 1211–1220.
24.
BoguszewskaKBoguszewskiDBuskoK. Special judo fitness test and biomechanics measurements as a way to control of physical fitness in young judoists. Arch Budo2010; 6: 205–209.
25.
BrownLEWeirJP. ASEP procedures recommendation I: accurate assessment of muscular strength and power. J Exerc Physiol Online2001; 4: 1–21.
26.
MahieuNNWitvrouwEStevensV, et al. Intrinsic risk factors for the development of Achilles tendon overuse injury: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med2006; 34: 226–235.
27.
BlaisLTrillesFLacoutureP. Validation of a specific machine to the strength training of judokas. J Strength Cond Res2007; 21: 409–412.
28.
WorrellTPerrinDGansnederB, et al. Comparison of lsokinetic strength and flexibility measures between hamstring lnjured and noninjured athletes. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther1991; 13: 118–125.
29.
AngelozziMMadamaMCorsicaC, et al. Rate of force development as an adjunctive outcome measure for return-to-sport decisions after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther2012; 42: 772–780.
30.
MadhanagopalJSinghOPMohanV, et al. New device for intrinsic hand muscle strength measurement: an alternative to strain gauge handheld dynamometer. Eval Heal Prof2019; 42: 103–113.
31.
GalenSSClarkeCJMcleanAN, et al. Isometric hip and knee torque measurements as an outcome measure in robot assisted gait training. NeuroRehabilitation2014; 34: 287–295.
32.
DuclayJMartinAH-reflexAME. Evoked H-reflex and V-wave responses during maximal isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle contraction. J Neurophysiol2005; 94: 3555–3562.
33.
DuclayJPasquetBMartinA, et al. Specific modulation of corticospinal and spinal excitabilities during maximal voluntary isometric, shortening and lengthening contractions in synergist muscles. J Physiol2011; 589: 2901–2916.
34.
JayaramanAShahPGregoryC, et al. Locomotor training and muscle function after incomplete spinal cord injury: case series. J Spinal Cord Med2008; 31: 185–193.
35.
HandaNYamamotoHTaniT, et al. The effect of trunk muscle exercises in patients over 40 years of age with chronic low back pain. J Orthop Sci2000; 5: 210–216.
36.
PopovichJMReevesNPPriessMC, et al. Quantitative measures of sagittal plane head – neck control: a test – retest reliability study. J Biomech2015; 48: 549–554.
37.
KoblbauerIFLambrechtYVan Der HulstML, et al. Reliability of maximal isometric knee strength testing with modified hand-held dynamometry in patients awaiting total knee arthroplasty: useful in research and individual patient settings? A reliability study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord2011; 12: 1–9.
38.
GagnonDNadeauSGravelD, et al. Reliability and validity of static knee strength measurements obtained with a chair-fixed dynamometer in subjects with hip or knee arthroplasty. Arch Phys Med Rehabil2005; 86: 1998–2008.
39.
DurmuşB. Servikal Bölge sorunlarinda egzersiz reçeteleme. Turk J Phys Med Rehabil2014; 60: 15–24.
40.
MazzoleniSTothAMunihM, et al. Whole-body isometric force/torque measurements for functional assessment in neuro-rehabilitation: platform design, development and verification. J Neuroeng Rehabil2009; 6: 1–15.
41.
EscamillaRFYamashiroKPaulosL, et al. Shoulder muscle activity and function in common shoulder rehabilitation exercises. Sport Med2009; 39: 663–685.
42.
ToigoMFlückMRienerR, et al. Robot-assisted assessment of muscle strength. J Neuroeng Rehabil2017; 14: 1–10.
43.
Ford-SmithCDWymanJFElswickRK, et al. Reliability of stationary dynamometer muscle strength testing in community-dwelling older adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil2001; 82: 1128–1132.
44.
EvansWJ. Exercise training guidelines for the elderly. Med Sci Sports Exerc1999; 31: 12–17.
45.
EdwardsRHTYoungAHoskingGP, et al. Human skeletal muscle function: description of tests and normal values. Clin Sci Mol Med1977; 52: 283–290.
46.
AnlikerEToigoM. Functional assessment of the muscle-bone unit in the lower leg. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact2012; 12: 46–55.
47.
EekMNKroksmarkAKBeckungE. Isometric muscle torque in children 5 to 15 years of age: normative data. Arch Phys Med Rehabil2006; 87: 1091–1099.
48.
KaratasMÇetinNBayramogluM, et al. Trunk muscle strength in relation to balance and functional disability in unihemispheric stroke patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil2004; 83: 81–87.
49.
RooksDSKielDPParsonsC, et al. Self-paced resistance training and walking exercise in community-dwelling older adults: effects on neuromotor performance. J Gerontol Med Sci1997; 52A: M161–M168.
50.
BlackwellTCawthonPMMarshallLM, et al. Consistency of leg extension power assessments in older men: the osteoporotic fractures in men (MrOS) study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil2009; 88: 934–940.
51.
HacıoğluS. Osteoartritte İzokinetik Egzersizlerin Kuadriseps Kas Gücüne Etkisinin İzokinetik Dinamometre ve Yüzeyel Emg İle Değerlendirilmesi. T.C. Uzmanlık TeziSağlık Bakanlığı Okmeydanı Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi Fizik Tedavi ve Rehabilitasyon Kliniği, 2009.
52.
AdaşTR. İzokinetik Dinamometre ile Yapılan Ölçümlerde Farklı Eklemlere Ait Yük Aralığının Tespiti. Y.Lisans Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fizyoloji Anabilim Dalı, 2008.
53.
FaulknerJA. Terminology for contractions of muscles during shortening, while isometric, and during lengthening. J Appl Physiol2019; 95: 455–459.
54.
BernardoRGonzález-BadilloJJDE VillarealESS, et al. Functional performance, maximal strength, and power characteristics in isometric and dynamic actions of lower extremities in soccer players. J Strength Cond Res2009; 23: 1391–1401.
55.
AlmansbaRBoucherVParentA-A, et al. Repeated linear and quadrangular sprint as a function of anaerobic power. J Strength Cond Res2019; 33: 2177–2184.
56.
ArmstrongNWelsmanJBloxhamS. Development of 11- to 16-year-olds’ short-term power output determined using both treadmill running and cycle ergometry. Eur J Appl Physiol2019; 119: 1565–1580.
57.
DuncanMJEyreEGrgicJ, et al. The effect of acute caffeine ingestion on upper and lower body anaerobic exercise performance. Eur J Sport Sci2019; 19: 1359–1366.
58.
McLaughlinDStamfordJWhiteD. Human physiology, çeviri: insan fizyolojisi. 2nd ed.Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, 2014.
59.
GelirEKozMErsözG. Fizyoloji ders kitabi. 7th ed.Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, 2016.
60.
AllmanBLRiceCL. Incomplete recovery of voluntary isometric force after fatigue is not affected by old age. Muscle and Nerve2001; 24: 1156–1167.
61.
DuchateauJEnokaRM. Neural control of lengthening contractions. J Exp Biol2016; 219: 197–204.
62.
WangXTaoXSoRCH, et al. Monitoring elbow isometric contraction by novel wearable fabric sensing device. Smart Mater Struct2016; 25: 125022–125038.
63.
ĐorđevićSTomažičSNariciM, et al. In-vivo measurement of muscle tension: dynamic properties of the mc sensor during isometric muscle contraction. Sensors2014; 14: 17848–17863.
64.
BaudrySKlassMPasquetB, et al. Age-related fatigability of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles during concentric and eccentric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol2007; 100: 515–525.
65.
ConstantCRGerberCEmeryRJH, et al. A review of the constant score: modifications and guidelines for its use. J Shoulder Elb Surg2008; 17: 355–361.
66.
BrorsonHWernerCThorngrenK. Normal pinch strength. Acta Orthop Scand1989; 60: 66–68.
67.
MasahiroHKatohM. Limits of the manipulative-fixed method for measurement of shoulder joint horizontal adduction muscle strength using a handheld dynamometer. J Phys Ther Sci2015; 27: 235–237.
68.
KolberMJBeekhuizenKChengMSS, et al. The reliability of hand-held dynamometry in measuring isometric strength of the shoulder internal and external rotator musculature using a stabilization device. Physiother Theory Pract2007; 23: 119–124.
69.
DaviesGJGouldJA. Trunk testing using a prototype cybex II lsokinetic dynamometer stabilization system. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther1982; 3: 164–170.
70.
AmiridisIGMartinAMorlonB, et al. Co-activation & tension-regulating phenomena during isokinetic knee ext in sedentary & highly skilled humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol1996; 73: 149–156.
71.
CrowHCShipJA. Tongue strength and endurance in different aged individuals. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Sci Med Sci1996; 51: 247–250.
72.
NicosiaMAHindJARoeckerEB, et al. Age effects on the temporal evolution of isometric and swallowing pressure. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Sci Med Sci2000; 55: M634–M640.
73.
HunterSKRyanDLOrtegaJD, et al. Task differences with the same load torque alter the endurance time of submaximal fatiguing contractions in humans. J Neurophysiol2002; 88: 3087–3096.
74.
HunterSKLepersRMacgillisCJ, et al. Activation among the elbow flexor muscles differs when maintaining arm position during a fatiguing contraction. J Appl Physiol2019; 94: 2439–2447.
75.
HunterSKCritchlowAEnokaRM. Influence of aging on sex differences in muscle fatigability. J Appl Physiol2004; 97: 1723–1732.
76.
PasquetBCarpentierADuchateauJ, et al. Muscle fatigue during concentric and eccentric contractions. Muscle Nerve2000; 23: 1727–1735.
77.
Kent-BraunJANgAVDoyleJW, et al. Human skeletal muscle responses vary with age and gender during fatigue due to incremental isometric exercise. J Appl Physiol2002; 93: 1813–1823.
78.
AzghaniMRFarahmandFMeghdariA, et al. Design and evaluation of a novel triaxial isometric trunk muscle strength measurement system. Proc IMechE, Part H: J Engineering in Medicine2009; 223: 755–766.
79.
SommerJUBirkRHörmannK, et al. Evaluation of the maximum isometric tongue force of healthy volunteers. 2014; 271: 3077–3084.
80.
GrabowskiPNarvesonMSiegleS. Reliability, responsiveness, and criterion validity of the kiio sensor, a new tool for assessment of muscle function. Mil Med2017; 182: 26–31.
81.
MurphyAJWilsonGJPryorJF, et al. Isometric assessment of muscular function: the effect of joint angle. J Appl Biomech1995; 11: 205–215.
82.
TsuyamaKYamamotoYFujimotoH, et al. Comparison of the isometric cervical extension strength and a cross-sectional area of neck extensor muscles in college wrestlers and judo athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol2001; 84: 487–491.
83.
ChengAJRiceCL. Fatigue and recovery of power and isometric torque following isotonic knee extensions. J Appl Physiol2005; 99: 1446–1452.
84.
ChialàOVelloneEKlompstraL, et al. Relationships among measures of physical fitness in adult patients with heart failure. J Rehabil Med2019; 51: 607–615.
85.
MontgomeryLCDouglassLWDeusterPA. Reliability of an isokinetic test of muscle strength and endurance. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther1989; 10: 315–322.
86.
CramerJTJenkinsNDMMustadVA, et al. Isokinetic dynamometry in healthy versus sarcopenic and malnourished elderly: beyond simple measurements of muscle strength. J Appl Gerontol2017; 36: 709–732.
87.
GrabinerMDOwingsTM. EMG differences between concentric and eccentric maximum voluntary contractions are evident prior to movement onset. Exp Brain Res2002; 145: 505–511.
88.
JonesPThomasCDos’SantosT, et al. The role of eccentric strength in 180° turns in female soccer players. Sports2017; 5: 2–11.
89.
BaileyDFirthP. Does kinesiology taping of the ankles affect proprioceptive control in professional football (soccer) players?Phys Ther Sport2017; 25: 94–98.
90.
NguyenDProperSIWMacDermidJC, et al. Functional outcomes of arthroscopic capsular release of the elbow. Arthrosc J Arthrosc Relat Surg2006; 22: 842–849.
91.
IossifidouABaltzopoulosVGiakasG. Isokinetic knee extension and vertical jumping: are they related?J Sports Sci2005; 23: 1121–1127.
92.
BabaultNPoussonMBallayY, et al. Activation of human quadriceps femoris during isometric, concentric, and eccentric contractions. J Appl Physiol2001; 91: 2628–2634.
93.
TaylorNASSandersRHHowickEI, et al. Static and dynamic assessment of the Biodex dynamometer. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol1991; 62: 180–188.
94.
WilliamBTimmK. Relationship between peak torque, work, and power for knee flexion and extension in clients with grade I medial compartment sprains of the knee. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther1992; 16: 288–292.
95.
TakedaYKashiwaguchiSMatsuuraT, et al. Hamstring muscle function after tendon harvest for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: evaluation with T2 relaxation time of magnetic imaging. Am J Sports Med2006; 34: 281–288.
96.
VentureGNakamuraYYamaneK, et al. Identification of limbs joint passive viscoelasticity: a comparison of two experimental methods. Int Symp Ski Sci2007; 1: 31–37.
97.
De Carvalho Froufe AndradeACPCaserottiPDe CarvalhoCMP, et al. Reliability of concentric, eccentric and isometric knee extension and flexion when using the REV9000 isokinetic dynamometer. J Hum Kinet2013; 37: 47–53.
98.
HadzicVUrsejEKalcM, et al. Reproducibility of shoulder short range of motion isokinetic and isometric strength testing. J Exerc Sci Fit2012; 10: 83–89.
99.
PontagaI. Hip and knee flexors and extensors balance in dependence on the velocity of movements. Biol Sport2004; 21: 261–272.
100.
BrownLEWhitehurstMBryantJR, et al. Reliability of the biodex system 2 isokinetic dynamometer concentric mode. Isokinet Exerc Sci1993; 3: 160–163.
101.
FarrellMRichardsJ. Analysis of the reliability and validity of the kinetic communicator exercise device. Med Sci Sport Exerc1986; 18: 44–49.
102.
MaleševićNAnderssonGBjörkmanA, et al. Instrumented platform for assessment of isometric hand muscles contractions. Meas Sci Technol2019; 30: 1–9.
103.
PinnigerGJSteeleJRCresswellAG. The force – velocity relationship of the human soleus muscle during submaximal voluntary lengthening actions. Eur J Appl Physiol2003; 90: 191–198.
104.
BeckerSBergerJBackfischM, et al. Effects of a 6-week strength training of the neck flexors and extensors on the head acceleration during headers in soccer. J Sport Sci Med2019; 18: 729–737.
105.
MendeESchwirtzAPaternosterFK. The relationship between general upper-body strength and pole force measurements, and their predictive power regarding double poling sprint performance. J Sport Sci Med2019; 18: 798–804.
106.
Da Silva-GrigolettoMEMesquitaMMAAragão-SantosJC, et al. Functional training induces greater variety and magnitude of training improvements than traditional resistance training in elderly women. J Sport Sci Med2019; 18: 789–797.
107.
KeilS. Technology and practical use of strain gages: with particular consideration of stress analysis using strain gages. Berlin, Germany: Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, 2017.
108.
FındıkoğluGYorgancıoğluR. Kas iskelet sistemi ve kardiyovasküler otonom fonksiyonlar. Fiz Tıp2004; 7: 151–155.
