Since its beginnings, three-dimensional printing (3DP) technology has been successful because of ongoing advances in operating principles, the range of materials and cost-saving measures. However, the 3DP technological progressions in the biomedical sector have majorly taken place in the last decade after the evolution of novel 3DP systems, generally categorised as bioprinters and biomaterials to provide a replacement, transplantation or regeneration of the damaged organs and tissue constructs of the human body. There is now substantial scientific literature accessible to support the benefits of digital healthcare procedures with the help of bioprinters. It is of the highest significance to know the fundamental principles of the available printers and the compatibility of biomaterials as their feedstock, notwithstanding the huge potential of bioprinting systems to manufacture organs and other human body components. This paper provides a precise and helpful reading of the different categories of bioprinters, suitable biomaterials, numerical simulations and modelling and examples of much acknowledged clinical practices. The paper will also cite the prominent issues that still have not received desired solutions. Overall, the article will be of great use for all the professionals, scholars and engineers concerned with the 3DP, bioprinting and biomaterials.
OzbolatITChenH.Manufacturing living things Industrial engineers lead research into printing new organs for transplant. Ind Eng2013; 45: 30–34.
2.
LangerR.Biomaterials in drug delivery and tissue engineering: one laboratory’s experience. Account Chem Res2000; 33: 94–101.
3.
ZhangYSYueKAlemanJ, et al. 3D bioprinting for tissue and organ fabrication. Ann Biomed Eng2017; 45: 148–163.
4.
WilliamsDF.Challenges with the development of biomaterials for sustainable tissue engineering. Front Bioeng Biotechnol2019; 7: 127–210.
5.
PorterJRRuckhTTPopatKC.Bone tissue engineering: a review in bone biomimetics and drug delivery strategies. Biotechnol Prog2009; 25: 1539–1560.
6.
KorossisSBollandFInghamE, et al. Review: tissue engineering of the urinary bladder: considering structure-function relationships and the role of mechanotransduction. Tissue Eng2006; 12: 635–644.
7.
NolteSVXuWRennekampffHO, et al. Diversity of fibroblasts—a review on implications for skin tissue engineering. Cells Tissues Organs2008; 187: 165–176.
MaoASMooneyDJ.Regenerative medicine: current therapies and future directions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA2015; 112: 14452–14459.
10.
CarrabbaMMadedduP.Current strategies for the manufacture of small size tissue engineering vascular grafts. Front Bioeng Biotechnol2018; 6: 41–12.
11.
ZhangYSXiaY.Multiple facets for extracellular matrix mimicking in regenerative medicine. Nanomedicine2015; 10: 689–692.
12.
JakabKNeaguAMironovV, et al. Engineering biological structures of prescribed shape using self-assembling multicellular systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA2004; 101: 2864–2869.
13.
LeeJMNgWLYeongWY.Resolution and shape in bioprinting: strategizing towards complex tissue and organ printing. Appl Phys Rev2019; 6: 011307.
14.
BaruiSSaundersRENaskarS, et al. Acoustic poration and dynamic healing of mammalian cell membranes during inkjet printing. ACS Biomater Sci Eng2020; 6: 749–757.
15.
KimSWKimDYRohHH, et al. Three-dimensional bioprinting of cell-laden constructs using polysaccharide-based self-healing hydrogels. Biomacromolecules2019; 20: 1860–1866.
16.
FerrisCJGilmoreKGWallaceGG, et al. Biofabrication: an overview of the approaches used for printing of living cells. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol2013; 97: 4243–4258.
17.
CuiXBreitenkampKFinnMG, et al. Direct human cartilage repair using three-dimensional bioprinting technology. Tissue Eng Part A2012; 18: 1304–1312.
18.
HaleemAJavaidMKhanRH, et al. 3D printing applications in bone tissue engineering. J Clin Orthop Trauma2020; 11: S118–S124.
19.
NadagoudaMNGinnMRastogiV.A review of 3D printing techniques for environmental applications. Curr Opin Chem Eng2020; 28: 173–178.
20.
YanQDongHSuJ, et al. A review of 3D printing technology for medical applications. Engineering2018; 4: 729–742.
21.
TofailSAMKoumoulosEPBandyopadhyayA, et al. Additive manufacturing: scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities. Mater Today2018; 21: 22–37.
22.
XuTBaicuCAhoM, et al. Fabrication and characterization of bio-engineered cardiac pseudo tissues. Biofabrication2009; 1: 035001.
23.
ChangCCBolandEDWilliamsSK, et al. Direct-write bioprinting three-dimensional biohybrid systems for future regenerative therapies. J Biomed Mater Res Part B Appl Biomater2011; 98: 160–170.
24.
FedorovichNEDe WijnJRVerboutAJ, et al. Three-dimensional fiber deposition of cell-laden, viable, patterned constructs for bone tissue printing. Tissue Eng Part A2008; 14: 127–133.
25.
OzbolatITMoncalKKGudapatiH.Evaluation of bioprinter technologies. Addit Manuf2017; 13: 179–200.
26.
MurphySVAtalaA.3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat Biotechnol2014; 32: 773–785.
27.
DoAVKhorsandBGearySM, et al. 3D printing of scaffolds for tissue regeneration applications. Adv Healthc Mater2015; 4: 1742–1762.
28.
ZorlutunaPAnnabiNCamci-UnalG, et al. Microfabricated biomaterials for engineering 3D tissues. Adv Mater Weinheim2012; 24: 1782–1804.
29.
CuiHNowickiMFisherJP, et al. 3D bioprinting for organ regeneration. Adv Healthc Mater2017; 6: 1601118.
30.
GaoGKimBSJangJ, et al. Recent strategies in extrusion-based three-dimensional cell printing toward organ biofabrication. ACS Biomater Sci Eng2019; 5: 1150–1169.
31.
OzbolatITPengWOzbolatV.Application areas of 3D bioprinting. Drug Discov Today2016; 21: 1257–1271.
32.
UnagollaJMJayasuriyaAC.Hydrogel-based 3D bioprinting: a comprehensive review on cell-laden hydrogels, bioink formulations, and future perspectives. Appl Mater Today2020; 18: 100479.
33.
MarkstedtKMantasATournierI, et al. 3D bioprinting human chondrocytes with nanocellulose-alginate bioink for cartilage tissue engineering applications. Biomacromolecules2015; 16: 1489–1496.
34.
NaingMWChuaCKLeongKF, et al. Fabrication of customised scaffolds using computer-aided design and rapid prototyping techniques. Rapid Prototyping2005; 11: 249–259.
35.
DolatiFYuYZhangY, et al. In vitro evaluation of carbon-nanotube-reinforced bioprintable vascular conduits. Nanotechnology2014; 25: 145101.
36.
WangMOPiardCMMelchiorriA, et al. Evaluating changes in structure and cytotoxicity during In Vitro degradation of three-dimensional printed scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part A2015; 21: 1642–1653.
37.
PatiFJangJHaDH, et al. Printing three-dimensional tissue analogues with decellularized extracellular matrix bioink. Nat Commun2014; 5: 3935–4011.
38.
LorberBHsiaoWKHutchingsIM, et al. Adult rat retinal ganglion cells and glia can be printed by piezoelectric inkjet printing. Biofabrication2014; 6: 015001.
39.
SnyderJEHamidQWangC, et al. Bioprinting cell-laden matrigel for radioprotection study of liver by pro-drug conversion in a dual-tissue microfluidic chip. Biofabrication2011; 3: 034112.
40.
ChangREmamiKWuH, et al. Biofabrication of a three-dimensional liver micro-organ as an in vitro drug metabolism model. Biofabrication2010; 2: 045004.
41.
StantonMMSamitierJSánchezS.Bioprinting of 3D hydrogels. Lab Chip2015; 15: 3111–3115.
42.
PoomathiNSinghSPrakashC, et al. Bioprinting in ophthalmology: current advances and future pathways. Rapid Prototyp J2019; 25: 496–514.
43.
PhillippiJAMillerEWeissL, et al. Microenvironments engineered by inkjet bioprinting spatially direct adult stem cells toward muscle- and bone-like subpopulations. Stem Cells2008; 26: 127–134.
44.
WuZSuXXuY, et al. Bioprinting three-dimensional cell-laden tissue constructs with controllable degradation. Sci Rep2016; 6(1): 24474.
45.
XuCZhangMHuangY, et al. Study of droplet formation process during drop-on-demand inkjetting of living cell-laden bioink. Langmuir2014; 30: 9130–9138.
46.
AraiKIwanagaSTodaH, et al. Three-dimensional inkjet biofabrication based on designed images. Biofabrication2011; 3: 034113.
47.
NakamuraMKobayashiATakagiF, et al. Biocompatible inkjet printing technique for designed seeding of individual living cells. Tissue Eng2005; 11: 1658–1666.
48.
TanEYSYeongWY. Concentric bioprinting of alginate-based tubular constructs using multi-nozzle extrusion-based technique. Int J Bioprinting2015; 1: 49–56.
49.
LiuWHeinrichMAZhouY, et al. Extrusion bioprinting of shear-thinning gelatin methacryloyl bioinks. Adv Healthc Mater2017; 6: 1–11.
50.
LeeJWChoiYJYongWJ, et al. Development of a 3D cell printed construct considering angiogenesis for liver tissue engineering. Biofabrication2016; 8: 015007.
51.
KoçakEYıldızAAcartürkF.Three dimensional bioprinting technology: applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical area. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces2021; 197: 111396.
52.
GudapatiHYanJHuangY, et al. Alginate gelation-induced cell death during laser-assisted cell printing. Biofabrication2014; 6: 035022.
53.
WangZJinXDaiR, et al. An ultrafast hydrogel photocrosslinking method for direct laser bioprinting. RSC Adv2016; 6: 21099–21104.
54.
KnowltonSOnalSYuCH, et al. Bioprinting for cancer research. Trends Biotechnol2015; 33: 504–513.
55.
BorzenkovMMäättänenAIhalainenP, et al. Fabrication of inkjet-printed gold nanostar patterns with photothermal properties on paper substrate. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2016; 8: 9909–9916.
56.
SkardalAAtalaA.Biomaterials for integration with 3-D bioprinting. Ann Biomed Eng2015; 43: 730–746.
57.
OzbolatITYuY.Bioprinting toward organ fabrication: challenges and future trends. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng2013; 60: 691–699.
58.
MelchelsFPWDomingosMANKleinTJ, et al. Additive manufacturing of tissues and organs. Prog Polym Sci2012; 37: 1079–1104.
59.
KhalilSNamJSunW.Multi-nozzle deposition for construction of 3D biopolymer tissue scaffolds. Rapid Prototyp J2005; 11: 9–17.
60.
XuTZhaoWZhuJM, et al. Complex heterogeneous tissue constructs containing multiple cell types prepared by inkjet printing technology. Biomaterials2013; 34: 130–139.
61.
DuanBHockadayLAKangKH, et al. 3D bioprinting of heterogeneous aortic valve conduits with alginate/gelatin hydrogels. J Biomed Mater Res Part A2013; 101: 1255–1264.
62.
ChangRNamJSunW.Direct cell writing of 3D microorgan for in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Tissue Eng Part C: Methods2008; 14: 157–166.
63.
SamandariMMostafaviAQuintJ, et al. In situ bioprinting: intraoperative implementation of regenerative medicine. Trends Biotechnol. Epub ahead of print 25 April 2022. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.03.009.
64.
KoleskyDBTrubyRLGladmanAS, et al. 3D bioprinting of vascularized, heterogeneous cell-laden tissue constructs. Adv Mater Weinheim2014; 26: 3124–3130.
65.
WuWDeConinckALewisJA.Omnidirectional printing of 3D microvascular networks. Adv Mater Weinheim2011; 23: H178–H183.
66.
KeriquelVOliveiraHRémyM, et al. In situ printing of mesenchymal stromal cells, by laser-assisted bioprinting, for in vivo bone regeneration applications. Sci Rep2017; 7: 1778–1811.
67.
KérourédanOHakobyanDRémyM, et al. In situ prevascularization designed by laser-assisted bioprinting: effect on bone regeneration. Biofabrication2019; 11: 045002.
68.
AgrawalPReifenbergerJGDorfmanKD.3D printing-enabled DNA extraction for long-read genomics. ACS Omega2020; 5: 20817–20824.
69.
ZhangPAbateAR.High-definition single-cell printing: cell-by-cell fabrication of biological structures. Adv Mater Weinheim2020; 32: 2005346.
70.
GuillemotFSouquetACatrosS, et al. Laser-assisted cell printing: principle, physical parameters versus cell fate and perspectives in tissue engineering. Nanomedicine2010; 5: 507–515.
71.
HoppBSmauszTKreszN, et al. Survival and proliferative ability of various living cell types after laser-induced forward transfer. Tissue Eng2005; 11: 1817–1823.
72.
GrueneMDeiwickAKochL, et al. Laser printing of stem cells for biofabrication of scaffold-free autologous grafts. Tissue Eng Part C Methods2011; 17: 79–87.
73.
SorkioAKochLKoivusaloL, et al. Human stem cell based corneal tissue mimicking structures using laser-assisted 3D bioprinting and functional bioinks. Biomaterials2018; 171: 57–71.
74.
GuillotinBSouquetACatrosS, et al. Laser assisted bioprinting of engineered tissue with high cell density and microscale organization. Biomaterials2010; 31: 7250–7256.
75.
KattamisNTPurnickPEWeissR, et al. Thick film laser induced forward transfer for deposition of thermally and mechanically sensitive materials. Appl Phys Lett2007; 91: 171120.
76.
GudapatiHDeyMOzbolatI.A comprehensive review on droplet-based bioprinting: past, present and future. Biomaterials2016; 102: 20–42.
77.
ParkJHJangJLeeJS, et al. Three-dimensional printing of tissue/organ analogues containing living cells. Ann Biomed Eng2017; 45: 180–194.
78.
LinHZhangDAlexanderPG, et al. Application of visible light-based projection stereolithography for live cell-scaffold fabrication with designed architecture. Biomaterials2013; 34: 331–339.
79.
WangZAbdullaRParkerB, et al. A simple and high-resolution stereolithography-based 3D bioprinting system using visible light crosslinkable bioinks. Biofabrication2015; 7: 045009.
80.
ParkJHHongJMJuYM, et al. A novel tissue-engineered trachea with a mechanical behavior similar to native trachea. Biomaterials2015; 62: 106–115.
81.
Faulkner-JonesAGreenhoughSKingJA, et al. Development of a valve-based cell printer for the formation of human embryonic stem cell spheroid aggregates. Biofabrication2013; 5: 015013.
82.
WangSWangZFooSE, et al. Culturing fibroblasts in 3D human hair keratin hydrogels. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2015; 7: 5187–5198.
83.
López-MarcialGRZengAYOsunaC, et al. Agarose-based hydrogels as suitable bioprinting materials for tissue engineering. ACS Biomater Sci Eng2018; 4: 3610–3616.
84.
WangYMiaoYZhangJ, et al. Three-dimensional printing of shape memory hydrogels with internal structure for drug delivery. Mater Sci Eng C2018; 84: 44–51.
85.
GavelPKDevDParmarHS, et al. Investigations of peptide-based biocompatible injectable shape-memory hydrogels: differential biological effects on bacterial and human blood cells. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2018; 10: 10729–10740.
86.
RothEAXuTDasM, et al. Inkjet printing for high-throughput cell patterning. Biomaterials2004; 25: 3707–3715.
87.
LeeVSinghGTrasattiJP, et al. Design and fabrication of human skin by three-dimensional bioprinting. Tissue Eng Part C: Methods2014; 20: 473–484.
88.
ParkJYChoiJCShimJH, et al. A comparative study on collagen type i and hyaluronic acid dependent cell behavior for osteochondral tissue bioprinting. Biofabrication2014; 6: 035004.
89.
KochLDeiwickASchlieS, et al. Skin tissue generation by laser cell printing. Biotechnol Bioeng2012; 109: 1855–1863.
90.
CensiRSchuurmanWMaldaJ, et al. A printable photopolymerizable thermosensitive p(hpmam-lactate)-PEG hydrogel for tissue engineering. Adv Funct Mater2011; 21: 1833–1842.
91.
XiaoWHeJNicholJW, et al. Synthesis and characterization of photocrosslinkable gelatin and silk fibroin interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels. Acta Biomater2011; 7: 2384–2393.
92.
ShinHOlsenBDKhademhosseiniA.The mechanical properties and cytotoxicity of cell-laden double-network hydrogels based on photocrosslinkable gelatin and gellan gum biomacromolecules. Biomaterials2012; 33: 3143–3152.
93.
GianiGFediSBarbucciR.Hybrid magnetic hydrogel: a potential system for controlled drug delivery by means of alternating magnetic fields. Polymers2012; 4: 1157–1169.
94.
BanerjeeDBoseS.Comparative effects of controlled release of sodium bicarbonate and doxorubicin on osteoblast and osteosarcoma cell viability. Mater Today Chem2019; 12: 200–208.
95.
BernalPNDelrotPLoterieD, et al. Volumetric bioprinting of complex living-tissue constructs within seconds. Adv Mater Weinheim2019; 31: 31.
96.
GrollJBurdickJAChoDW, et al. A definition of bioinks and their distinction from biomaterial inks. Biofabrication2018; 11: 013001.
97.
OzbolatITHospodiukM.Current advances and future perspectives in extrusion-based bioprinting. Biomaterials2016; 76: 321–343.
98.
WilliamsDThayerPMartinezH, et al. A perspective on the physical, mechanical and biological specifications of bioinks and the development of functional tissues in 3D bioprinting. Bioprinting2018; 9: 19–36.
99.
MoldovanNIHibinoNNakayamaK.Principles of the kenzan method for robotic cell spheroid-based three-dimensional bioprinting. Tissue Eng Part B: Rev2017; 23: 237–244.
100.
ZhangXYYanagiYShengZ, et al. Regeneration of diaphragm with bio-3D cellular patch. Biomaterials2018; 167: 1–14.
101.
BulanovaEAKoudanEVDegosserieJ, et al. Bioprinting of a functional vascularized mouse thyroid gland construct. Biofabrication2017; 9: 034105.
102.
Duarte CamposDFBlaeserAKorstenA, et al. The stiffness and structure of three-dimensional printed hydrogels direct the differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells toward adipogenic and osteogenic lineages. Tissue Eng Part A2015; 21: 740–756.
103.
SearsNASeshadriDRDhavalikarPS, et al. A review of three-dimensional printing in tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part B Rev2016; 22: 298–310.
104.
RutzALHylandKEJakusAE, et al. A multimaterial bioink method for 3D printing tunable, cell-compatible hydrogels. Adv Mater Weinheim2015; 27: 1607–1614.
105.
SchachtKJüngstTSchweinlinM, et al. Biofabrication of cell-loaded 3D spider silk constructs. Angew Chem Int Ed2015; 54: 2816–2820.
106.
PescosolidoLSchuurmanWMaldaJ, et al. Hyaluronic acid and dextran-based semi-IPN hydrogels as biomaterials for bioprinting. Biomacromolecules2011; 12: 1831–1838.
107.
BacelarAHSilva-CorreiaJOliveiraJM, et al. Recent progress in gellan gum hydrogels provided by functionalization strategies. J Mater Chem B2016; 4: 6164–6174.
108.
JiaJRichardsDJPollardS, et al. Engineering alginate as bioink for bioprinting. Acta Biomater2014; 10: 4323–4331.
109.
KhanFTanakaM.Designing smart biomaterials for tissue engineering. Int J Mol Sci2017; 19: 1–15.
110.
LiuFLiuCChenQ, et al. Progress in organ 3D bioprinting. Int J Bioprinting2018; 4: 128–215.
111.
GermainLFuentesCAvan VuureAW, et al. 3D-printed biodegradable gyroid scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Mater Des2018; 151: 113–122.
112.
ElomaaLTeixeiraSHakalaR, et al. Preparation of poly(ε-caprolactone)-based tissue engineering scaffolds by stereolithography. Acta Biomater2011; 7: 3850–3856.
113.
BoseSVahabzadehSBandyopadhyayA.Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing. Biochem Pharmacol2013; 16: 496–504.
114.
FrydrychMChenB.Large three-dimensional poly(glycerol sebacate)-based scaffolds – a freeze-drying preparation approach. J Mater Chem B2013; 1: 6650–6661.
115.
Al NaemMBourebabaLKucharczykK, et al. Therapeutic mesenchymal stromal stem cells: isolation, characterization and role in equine regenerative medicine and metabolic disorders. Stem Cell Rev Rep2020; 16: 301–322.
MatsushitaYOnoWOnoN.Skeletal stem cells for bone development and repair: diversity matters. Curr Osteoporos Rep2020; 18: 189–198.
118.
LangridgeBGriffinMButlerPE.Regenerative medicine for skeletal muscle loss: a review of current tissue engineering approaches. J Mater Sci Mater Med2021; 32: 15.
119.
TakahashiKYamanakaS.Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell2006; 126: 663–676.
120.
WangATangZParkIH, et al. Induced pluripotent stem cells for neural tissue engineering. Biomaterials2011; 32: 5023–5032.
121.
MargaFJakabKKhatiwalaC, et al. Toward engineering functional organ modules by additive manufacturing. Biofabrication2012; 4: 022001.
122.
ChangHKYangDHHaMY, et al. 3D printing of cell-laden visible light curable glycol chitosan bioink for bone tissue engineering. Carbohydr Polym2022; 287: 119328.
123.
GrueneMPflaumMHessC, et al. Laser printing of three-dimensional multicellular arrays for studies of cell–cell and cell–environment interactions. Tissue Eng Part C: Methods2011; 17: 973–982.
124.
AbdollahiyanPOroojalianFMokhtarzadehA, et al. Hydrogel-based 3D bioprinting for bone and cartilage tissue engineering. Biotechnol J2020; 15: e2000095.
125.
Di BellaCDuchiSO’ConnellCD, et al. In situ handheld three-dimensional bioprinting for cartilage regeneration. J Regen Med Tissue Eng2018; 12: 611–621.
126.
DaiXMaCLanQ, et al. 3D bioprinted glioma stem cells for brain tumor model and applications of drug susceptibility. Biofabrication2016; 8: 045005.
127.
KnowltonSTasogluS.A bioprinted liver-on-a-chip for drug screening applications. Trends Biotechnol2016; 34: 681–682.
128.
MöllerTAmorosoMHäggD, et al. In vivo chondrogenesis in 3D bioprinted human cell-laden hydrogel constructs. Plast Reconstr Surg Global Open2017; 5: e1227.
129.
MironovVKasyanovVMarkwaldRR.Organ printing: from bioprinter to organ biofabrication line. Curr Opin Biotechnol2011; 22: 667–673.
130.
RezendeRAKasyanovVMironovV, et al. Organ printing as an information technology. Procedia Eng2015; 110: 151–158.
131.
RobuAAldeaRMunteanuO, et al. Computer simulations of in vitro morphogenesis. BioSystems2012; 109: 430–443.
132.
GoelNSRogersG.Computer simulation of engulfment and other movements of embryonic tissues. J Theor Biol1978; 71: 103–140.
133.
TownsendJMBeckECGehrkeSH, et al. Flow behavior prior to crosslinking: the need for precursor rheology for placement of hydrogels in medical applications and for 3D bioprinting. Prog Polym Sci2019; 91: 126–140.
134.
NorotteCMargaFSNiklasonLE, et al. Scaffold-free vascular tissue engineering using bioprinting. Biomaterials2009; 30: 5910–5917.
135.
NeaguAJakabKJamisonR, et al. Role of physical mechanisms in biological self-organization. Phys Rev Lett2005; 95: 178104.
136.
CahnJWHilliardJE. Free energy of a nonuniform system. I. Interfacial free energy. J Chem Phys1958; 28: 258–267.
137.
QinRSBhadeshiaHK.Phase field method. Mater Sci Technol2010; 26: 803–811.
138.
CahnJWHilliardJE. Free Energy of a nonuniform system. III. Nucleation in a two-component incompressible fluid. AIP J Chem Phys1959; 31: 688–699.
139.
YangXMironovVWangQ.Modeling fusion of cellular aggregates in biofabrication using phase field theories. J Theor Biol2012; 303: 110–118.
140.
KorffTAugustinHG.Tensional forces in fibrillar extracellular matrices control directional capillary sprouting. J Cell Sci1999; 112(Pt 19): 3249–3258.
141.
InzanaJAOlveraDFullerSM, et al. 3D printing of composite calcium phosphate and collagen scaffolds for bone regeneration. Biomaterials2014; 35: 4026–4034.
