United Kingdom National Guideline on the Management of Trichomonas vaginalis 2014

Abstract

The main objective is to assist practitioners in managing men and women diagnosed with Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) infection. This guideline offers recommendations on the diagnostic tests, treatment regimens and health promotion principles needed for the effective management of TV, covering the management of the initial presentation, as well as how to prevent transmission and future infection.

Keywords

protozoal disease diagnosis epidemiology treatment sexually transmitted infection guideline

New in the 2014 guidelines: Updated section on diagnosis incorporating information on nucleic acid amplification tests and management of infection refractory to first-line treatment.

Introduction and methodology

Scope and purpose

It is aimed primarily at people aged 16 years or older (see specific guidelines for those under 16) presenting to health care professionals, working in departments offering specialist care in sexually transmitted infection (STI) management within the United Kingdom. However, the principles of the recommendations should be adopted across all levels (non-specialist services may need to develop, where appropriate, local care pathways). For levels or recommendations, see appendix 2.

Search strategy

This document was produced in accordance with the guidance set out in the Clinical Effectiveness Group’s (CEG) document “Framework for guideline development and assessment” at http://www.bashh.org/guidelines. The 2014 guideline updates the 2007 guideline by searching PubMed 2006–2012 for Trichomonas vaginalis or trichomoniasis and limited to “human” and “English”.

The Cochrane database was searched for Trichomonas vaginalis. The European (IUSTI/WHO) guideline on the management of vaginal discharge, 2011, and the 2010 US CDC guidelines for the treatment of Sexually Transmitted Diseases were reviewed. A general search was performed on the NHS evidence search engine as well as a Google Scholar and the BNF September 2012.

Piloting and consultation, including public and patient involvement

The initial draft of the guideline, including the patient information leaflet (PIL), was piloted for validation by the CEG and a number of BASHH pilot sites. A standardised feedback form was completed by each pilot site for the PIL. The final draft guideline was then reviewed by the CEG using the AGREE instrument before posting it on the BASHH website for external peer review for a two-month period. Concurrently it was reviewed by the BASHH Public and Patient Panel. Comments received were collated by the CEG editor and sent to the guideline chair for review and action. The final guideline was approved by the CEG and a review date agreed before publication on the BASHH website.

Aetiology

Causative organism

Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) is a flagellated protozoon. In women the organism is found in the vagina, urethra and paraurethral glands. Urethral infection is present in 90% of infected women, although the urethra is the sole site of infection in less than 5% of cases. In men infection is usually of the urethra, although trichomonads have been isolated from the subpreputial sac and lesions of the penis.

Transmission

In adults transmission is almost exclusively through sexual intercourse. Due to site specificity, infection can only follow intravaginal or intraurethral inoculation of the organism.

Clinical features (Evidence level III)

Symptoms

Females^1–3

10–50% are asymptomatic.

The commonest symptoms include vaginal discharge, vulval itching, dysuria, or offensive odour, but these are not specific for TV.

Occasionally the presenting complaint is of low abdominal discomfort or vulval ulceration.

Males^4–6

15 to 50% of men with TV are asymptomatic and usually present as sexual partners of infected women.

The commonest presentation in symptomatic men is with urethral discharge and/or dysuria.

Other symptoms include urethral irritation and urinary frequency.

Rarely the patient may complain of a copious purulent urethral discharge, or complications such as prostatitis.

Signs

Females^1–3

Vaginal discharge in up to 70% – varying in consistency from thin and scanty to profuse and thick; the classical frothy yellow discharge occurs in 10–30% of women.

Vulvitis and vaginitis are associated with trichomoniasis.

Approximately 2% of patients will have strawberry cervix appearance to the naked eye. Higher rates are seen on colposcopic examination.

5–15% of women will have no abnormalities on examination.

Males^4–6

Urethral discharge (20–60% men) – usually small or moderate amounts only, and or dysuria.

No signs, even in the presence of symptoms suggesting urethritis: one recent prospective study of infected TV contacts found 77.3% were asymptomatic.

Rarely balanoposthitis.

Complications

There is increasing evidence that TV infection can have a detrimental outcome on pregnancy and is associated with preterm delivery and low birth weight. (Evidence level III).^7–9 However, further research is needed to confirm these associations and to prove that the association is causal. TV infection at delivery may predispose to maternal postpartum sepsis.¹⁰

Some studies have shown treatment of TV infection in pregnancy to have a negative impact on the pregnancy^11–13 but others have shown no association between treatment for TV and pre-term delivery or low birth weight.¹⁴ Screening of asymptomatic individuals for TV infection is therefore not currently recommended. (Evidence Level I & II, Grade A)

Multiple reports support an epidemiological association between HIV and trichomoniasis. There is growing evidence that trichomonas infection may enhance HIV transmission^15–18 and there may be an increased risk of TV infection in those that are HIV positive.¹⁹

Diagnosis

Testing for TV should be undertaken in women complaining of vaginal discharge or vulvitis, or found to have evidence of vulvitis, and/or vaginitis on examination. Testing in men is recommended for TV contacts, and should be considered in those with persistent urethritis.

Sites sampled

Females (Evidence level III, Grade B).^1,2,20,21

Swab taken from the posterior fornix at the time of speculum examination.

Self-administered vaginal swabs have been used in many recent studies, and are likely to give equivalent results.^22,23

Urine has been used for evaluation with some nucleic acid amplification tests.

Males (Evidence level III, B)²⁴

Urethral culture or culture of first-void urine will diagnose 60–80% cases, sampling both sites simultaneously will significantly increase the diagnostic rate using microscopy or culture.

Laboratory investigations

Microscopy

Detection of motile trichomonads by light-field microscopy can be achieved by collection of vaginal discharge using a swab or loop, which is then mixed with a small drop of saline on a glass slide and a coverslip placed on top. The wet preparation should be read within 10 min of collection, as the trichomonads will quickly loose motility and be more difficult to identify.²⁵ The slide should be scanned, firstly at low magnification (100×), and then at a higher magnification (400×) to confirm the morphology of any trichomonads and to visualise the flagella. Microscopy as a diagnostic aid for TV has the advantage that it can be performed near to the patient and in a clinic setting. The sensitivity is highest in women presenting with vaginal discharge and a visualisation of motile trichomonads in these women indicates the presence of infection. However, the sensitivity is reported to be as low as 45–60% in women^{20,21,24,26–29} in some studies and lower in men,^29,30 and so a negative result should be interpreted with caution. The specificity with trained personnel is high.

Detection of TV by staining dead organisms with acridine orange can give a higher sensitivity than wet microscopy^31,32 but is not widely used.

Point of care tests Level of evidence: IIb, B

A number of point of care tests that have the advantages of microscopy have been described^29,30,33 of which the OSOM Trichomonas Rapid Test (Genzyme Diagnostics, USA) has demonstrated a high sensitivity and specificity.^29,30 The sensitivity and specificity has been reported to be 80–94% and greater than 95%, respectively, depending on the comparator.^27,28,34,35 This test requires no instrumentation and provides a result within 30 min and is a suitable alternative to culture or molecular testing. Although these tests are more sensitive than those requiring vaginal wet preparation, false positives might occur, especially in populations with a low prevalence of disease, so consideration should be given to confirming positives in that situation.

Culture level of evidence: IIb, B

Culture of TV has a higher sensitivity compared to microscopy^27,28,30 and can detect TV in men.^29,30 A commercially available culture system (InPouch TV; BioMed Diagnostics, USA) offers many advantages over previous culture media such as Diamond’s medium.^36–39 Once inoculated, the pouches can be transferred to the laboratory for incubation and the entire pouch read microscopically each day for five days, negating the need to prepare wet preparations every day that only sample a portion of the culture medium. Culture was considered “the gold standard” but the molecular testing has proven to have a higher sensitivity.

Molecular detection Level of evidence: IIb, B

Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) offer the highest sensitivity for the detection of TV. They should be the test of choice where resources allow and are becoming the current “gold standard”. In-house PCRs have shown increased sensitivity in comparison to both microscopy and culture,^{31,32,40–52} which has been found to be even greater using the commercial FDA-approved platform which can detect TV DNA in vaginal or endocervical swabs and in urine samples from women and men with sensitivities of 88%–97% and specificities of 98%–99%, depending on the specimen and reference standard (APTIMA TV, Genprobe).^28,53–57 In-house PCRs need validation before use on clinical specimens and are unlikely to be offered by many laboratories. However, the APTIMA TV uses the same technology as testing for chlamydia and gonorrhoea, so that additional hardware will not be necessary and is becoming more widely available.

Management

General advice

Sexual partner(s) should be treated simultaneously. Patients should be advised to avoid sexual intercourse for at least 1 week and until they and their partner(s) have completed treatment and follow-up.

Patients should be given a detailed explanation of their condition with particular emphasis on the long-term implications for the health of themselves and their partner(s). This should be reinforced by giving them clear and accurate written information. (See www.bashh.org/guidelines for patient information leaflet).

Further investigations

Screening for coexistent sexually transmitted infections should be undertaken in both men and women.

Treatment^57–59

Systemic antibiotic therapy is required to effect a permanent cure due to the high frequency of infection of the urethra and paraurethral glands in females. A Cochrane review has found that almost any nitroimidazole drug given as a single dose or over a longer period results in parasitological cure in >90% of cases. Oral single-dose treatment with any nitroimidazole seems to be effective in achieving short-term parasitological cure, but is associated with more frequent side effects than either longer oral or intravaginal treatment. Intravaginal treatment showed parasitological cure rates around 50%, which is unacceptably low. There is a spontaneous cure rate in the order of 20–25%.

Recommended regimes (Evidence level Ia, Grade A)

Metronidazole 2 g orally in a single dose

Metronidazole 400–500 mg twice daily for 5–7 days

Alternative regimens

Tinidazole 2 g orally in a single dose. Tinidazole has similar activity to metronidazole but is more expensive.

Pregnancy and breast feeding

Metronidazole is likely to cure trichomoniasis, but it is not known whether this treatment will have any effect on pregnancy outcomes.⁶⁰ Meta-analyses have concluded that there is no evidence of teratogenicity from the use of metronidazole in women during the first trimester of pregnancy (Evidence level Ia).^60–63 Metronidazole can be used in all stages of pregnancy and during breast feeding. Symptomatic women should be treated at diagnosis, although some clinicians have preferred to defer treatment until the second trimester. The British National Formulary advises against high-dose regimens in pregnancy. Metronidazole enters breast milk and may affect its taste. The manufacturers recommend avoiding high doses if breast feeding or if using a single dose of metronidazole, breast feeding should be discontinued for 12–24 h to reduce infant exposure. Tinidazole is pregnancy category C (animal studies have demonstrated an adverse event, and no adequate, well-controlled studies in pregnant women have been conducted), and its safety in pregnant women has not been well-evaluated. The manufacturer states that the use of tinidazole in the first trimester is contraindicated.

HIV-positive individuals

There are few data available to guide management of TV infection management in HIV-positive individuals. The standard treatment recommendations are based on studies conducted in HIV-negative persons. However, a recent randomized clinical trial demonstrated that a 2-g single oral dose of metronidazole was not as effective as 500 mg of metronidazole twice daily for 7 days for trichomoniasis among HIV-infected women.⁶⁴

Reactions to treatment

Patients should be advised not to take alcohol for the duration of treatment and for at least 48 h (72 h for tinidazole) afterwards because of the possibility of a disulfiram-like (Antabuse® effect) reaction.

Allergy

There is no effective alternative to 5-nitroimidazole compounds. Hypersensitivity reactions have been reported in patients using metronidazole and tinidazole and it is unknown whether there is cross-reactivity between the two agents. There are no data to suggest that tinidazole would be safe to use in a patient with metronidazole allergy. It is important to take an accurate history to establish that a true allergy exists. Adverse reactions which may occur include anaphylaxis, skin rashes, pustular eruptions, pruritis, flushing, urticaria, and fever.⁶⁵ In cases of true allergy, desensitization to metronidazole has been described in case reports and could be considered^66,67(see Appendix 1⁶⁸). Recently, Helms et al.⁶⁹ reported data collected from clinicians who consulted the CDC on 59 patients with suspected hypersensitivity to metronidazole. All 15 patients who underwent metronidazole desensitization and were treated with metronidazole had their infections eradicated. Alternative treatment regimens were used for 17 study subjects with a cure rate of only 29.4%.

Treatment failure

Persistent or recurrent TV is due to inadequate therapy, re-infection, or resistance. Therefore check:

Compliance and exclude vomiting of metronidazole

Sexual history for possibility of re-infection and ask if partner(s) have been treated

A study investigating repeat TV infections at 1 month following the metronidazole 2 g stat dose found that 7% of HIV-negative women and 10% of HIV-positive women were still infected due to treatment failure, suggesting a significant number of women do not respond to single-dose therapy.⁷⁰

Development of resistance against metronidazole and other nitroimidazoles can be due to aerobic and anaerobic resistance. In the USA, it is estimated that 5% of clinical isolates of TV exhibit some degree of metronidazole resistance, predominantly low level.⁷¹ Resistance tests can be of clinical benefit. Clinical and microbiological cure rates were higher in women with previous treatment failure who were treated in accordance with a treatment protocol utilising the results of a resistance test.⁷² Resistance data from the UK are lacking due to the absence of a metronidazole resistance testing service; however in 2002, one group found a 3.5% prevalence of non-response to standard dose metronidazole in the absence of re-infection and non-adherence.⁷³ Clinical isolates resistant to metronidazole can be resistant to tinidazole but usually with significantly lower minimal lethal concentrations to tinidazole than metronidazole.^74,75 In vitro resistance may not predict clinical response to treatment,⁷⁴ which may be relative rather than absolute and may be overcome by high-dose metronidazole or tinidazole therapy. Tinidazole has a longer serum half-life,⁷⁶ good tissue penetration, a better side-effect profile and lower levels of resistance than metronidazole so should be used when infections have not responded to metronidazole even though it is more expensive.^71,75

Treatment protocol for non-response to standard TV therapy (having excluded re-infection and non-adherence)

1. Repeat course of 7-day standard therapy

Metronidazole 400–500 mg twice daily for 7 days (Evidence level III) – in those who failed to respond to a first course of treatment, 40% responded to a repeat course of standard treatment. ⁷³

For patients failing this second regimen:

2. Higher-dose course of nitroimidazole

Metronidazole or tinidazole 2 g daily for 5–7 days ⁷² ^, ⁷⁷ or

Metronidazole 800 mg three times daily for 7 days ⁷³ (Evidence level III) – in those who failed to respond to a second course of treatment, 70% responded to a higher dose course of metronidazole. ⁷³

For those failing this third regimen, resistance testing should be performed if available as improved outcomes were reported with a treatment protocol guided by the results of a resistance test.⁷² If resistance testing is not available, high-dose tinidazole regimens are recommended, as in the above study 65% of women with clinical treatment failure did not have tinidazole-resistant isolates and 83% of those receiving the recommended high-dose treatment were cured compared with 57% of women receiving a lower-than-recommended dose.⁷²

3. Very high-dose course of tinidazole

Tinidazole 1 g twice or three times daily, or 2 g twice daily for 14 days ± intravaginal tinidazole 500 mg twice daily for 14 days ⁷² ^, ⁷⁸ ^, ⁷⁹ (Evidence level III) – in those who had failed other treatments, 92% ⁷⁸ and 90% ⁷⁹ responded to a very high-dose course of tinidazole.

If very high-dose tinidazole has been unsuccessful it is difficult to recommend one specific further treatment. Treatment of such cases can be a therapeutic challenge as treatment options are limited with little evidence to support them. The largest published case series have been with intravaginal paromomycin and intravaginal furazolidone. There are anecdotal reports of treatment success with a number of other treatments. The reports are based on success in one or two women who had usually received a wide variety of prior treatments. Consequently for each successful anecdote there are a number of reports of treatment failure.

4. Other treatments with some reported success (Evidence level IV or anecdotal)

Paromomycin* intravaginally 250 mg once or twice daily for 14 days – 56 – 58% cure rate reported^78,80

Furazolidone* intravaginally 100 mg twice daily for 12 – 14 days – 33% cure rate reported^72,81

Acetarsol* pessaries 500 mg nocte for 2 weeks

6% Nonoxynol–9* pessaries nightly for 2 weeks

Availability

*The medicines suggested for use in treatment failure are unlicensed products and may not be readily available for purchase in the UK. The pharmacy purchasing department may be able to source some of these products from specialist manufacturers. At the time of writing this guideline, Acetarsol 500 mg pessaries and Nonoxynol-9 75 mg pessaries were available from Pharmarama International Ltd. The lead time for ordering these products for the first time may be up to 8 weeks.

Follow up

Tests of cure are only recommended if the patient remains symptomatic following treatment, or if symptoms recur. (Evidence level: IV, C)

Contact tracing and treatment

Current partners and any partner(s) within the 4 weeks prior to presentation should be screened for the full range of STIs and treated for TV irrespective of the results of investigations^82–84 (Evidence level Ib A). (See www.bashh.org/guidelines for partner notification statement). In a male contact of TV, found to have urethritis on screening, it is reasonable to treat initially for TV and repeat the urethral smear before treating additionally for non-gonococcal urethritis (Level III).⁸⁵

There are no data available to guide treatment of the male partners of women with nitroimidazole treatment failure. Expert opinion suggests male partners should be evaluated and treated with either metronidazole 400–500 mg twice daily for 7 days or tinidazole 2 g single dose. There has been one report of a male partner requiring very high-dose tinidazole therapy before re-infection was prevented.⁷⁹

Organisational and financial considerations

The first-line treatments are cheap and easy to administer (for e.g. 21-tablet pack 200 mg metronidazole costs £1.37). For allergy and resistant case management the relative costs, time to obtain drug and access to safe desensitisation facilities will incur additional costs and resources, or appropriate referral.

Auditable outcome measures

First-line treatment for all patients found to have TV infection should be with metronidazole (with allergy as an exception), either as a single dose of 2 g or 400 mg twice daily for at least 5 days. Performance standard: 97%.

Individuals should be provided with written information about their diagnosis and treatment. Performance standard: 97%.

Partner notification should be performed and documented according to BASHH Statement on Partner Notification for Sexually Transmissible Infections (see www.bashh.org/guidelines). Performance standard: 97%.

Qualifying statement

The recommendations in this guideline may not be appropriate for use in all clinical situations. Decisions to follow these recommendations must be based on the professional judgement of the clinician and consideration of individual patient circumstances and available resources. All possible care has been undertaken to ensure the publication of the correct dosage of medication and route of administration. However, it remains the responsibility of the prescribing physician to ensure the accuracy and appropriateness of the medication they prescribe.

Statement of editorial independence

This guideline was commissioned, edited and endorsed by the BASHH CEG without external funding being sought or obtained.

Declarations of interest

All members of the guideline writing committee completed the BASHH conflict of interest declaration detailed below at the time the guideline’s final draft was submitted to the CEG. JW has received research grant funding in the form of equipment from Gen-Probe.

Membership of the CEG

From October 2012 the membership of the CEG is:

Dr Keith Radcliffe (Chair); Consultant Physician in Genitourinary Medicine, Whittall Street Clinic, Birmingham

Dr Mark FitzGerald, Consultant Physician in Genitourinary Medicine, Musgrove Park Hospital, Taunton

Dr Deepa Grover, Consultant in Genitourinary/HIV Medicine, Barnet General Hospital/Royal Free Hospital

Dr Stephen Higgins, Consultant Physician in Genitourinary Medicine, North Manchester General Hospital, Manchester

Dr Margaret Kingston, Consultant Physician in Genitourinary Medicine, Manchester Centre for Sexual Health, Manchester

Dr Neil Lazaro, Associate Specialist in Genitourinary Medicine, Royal Preston Hospital, Preston

Dr Louise Melvin, Consultant in Sexual & Reproductive Health and FSRH representative, Sandyford, Glasgow

Dr Ann Sullivan, Consultant Physician in Genitourinary Medicine, Chelsea & Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The writing group and CEG would like to acknowledge the valuable contribution from individuals responding to the draft consultation and the pilot sites.

Timescale for next revision: 2019

References

Wolner-Hanssen

Kreiger

Stevens

. Clinical manifestations of vaginal trichomoniasis. JAMA 1989; 264: 571–576.

Fouts

Kraus

. Trichomonas vaginalis: re-evaluation of its clinical presentation and laboratory diagnosis. J Infect Dis 1980; 141: 137–143.

Hollman

Coupey

Fox

. Screening for Trichomonas vaginalis in high-risk adolescent females with a new transcription-mediated nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT): associations with ethnicity, symptoms, and prior and current STIs. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2010; 23: 312–316.

Kreiger

Jenny

Verdon

. Clinical manifestations of trichomoniasis in men. Ann lntern Med 1993; 118: 844–849.

Nicol

Weston

TET

. Natural history of trichomonal infection in males. Brit J Vener Dis 1963; 39: 251–251.

Seña

. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in male sexual partners: implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51: 114–115.

Saurina

McCormack

. Trichomoniasis in pregnancy. Sex Trans Dis 1997; 24: 361–362.

Cotch

Pastorek

Nugent

. Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery. Sex Trans Dis 1997; 24: 353–360.

Mann

McDermott

Barnes

. Trichomoniasis in pregnancy and mental retardation in children. Ann Epidemiol 2009; 19: 891–899.

10.

Sebitloane

Moodley

Esterhuizen

. Pathogenic lower genital tract organisms in HIV-infected and uninfected women, and their association with postpartum infectious morbidity. S Afr Med J 2011; 101: 466–469.

11.

Klebanoff

Carey

Hauth

. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N Eng J Med 2001; 345: 487–93.

12.

Andrews

Sibai

Thom

. Randomised controlled trial of metronidazole plus erythromycin to prevent spontaneous preterm delivery in fetal fibronectin-positive women. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 101: 847–55.

13.

Kigozi

Brahmbhatt

Wabwire-Mangen

. Treatment of Trichomonas in pregnancy and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a sub analysis of a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189: 1398–1400.

14.

Stringer

Read

Hoffman

. Treatment of trichomoniasis in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa does not appear to be associated with low birth weight or preterm birth. S Afr Med J 2010; 100: 58–64.

15.

Sorvillo

Kernott

. Trichomonas vaginalis and amplification of HIV-1 transmission. Lancet 1998; 351: 213–214.

16.

Laga

Manoka

Kivuvu

. Non ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission in women: results from a cohort study. AIDS 1993; 7: 95–102.

17.

McClelland

. Infection with Trichomonas vaginalis increases the risk of HIV-1 acquisition. J Infect Dis 2007; 195: 698–702.

18.

Tanton

. Correlates of HIV-1 genital shedding in Tanzanian women. PLoS One 2011; 6: e17480–e17480.

19.

Mavedzenge

. Epidemiological synergy of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV in Zimbabwean and South African women. Sex Transm Dis 2010; 37: 460–466.

20.

Bickley

Krisher

Punsalang

. Comparison of direct fluorescent antibody, acridine orange, wet mount and culture for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in women attending a public sexually transmitted disease clinic. Sex Trans Dis 1989; 16: 127–131.

21.

Kreiger

Tam

Stevens

. Diagnosis of Trichomoniasis: comparison of conventional wet-mount examination with cytological studies, cultures, and monoclonal antibody staining of direct specimens. JAMA 1988; 259: 1223–1227.

22.

Crucitti

Van Dyck

Tehe

. Comparison of culture and different PCR assays for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in self collected swab specimens. Sex Transm Infect 2003; 79: 393–398.

23.

Tabrizi

Paterson

Fairley

. A self administered technique for the detection of sexually transmitted diseases in remote communities. J Infect Dis 1997; 176: 289–292.

24.

Kreiger

Viridans

Siegel

. Risk assessment and laboratory diagnosis of trichomoniasis in men. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 1362–1366.

25.

Kingston

Bansal

Carlin

. ‘Shelf life' of Trichomonas vaginalis. Int J STD AIDS 2003; 14: 28–29.

26.

Van Der Pol

Kraft

Williams

. Use of an adaptation of a commercially available PCR assay aimed at diagnosis of chlamydia and gonorrhea to detect Trichomonas vaginalis in urogenital specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 366–373.

27.

Huppert

. Rapid antigen testing compares favorably with transcription-mediated amplification assay for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in young women. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 194–198.

28.

Huppert

. Use of an immunochromatographic assay for rapid detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 684–687.

29.

Nye

Schwebke

Body

. Comparison of APTIMA Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification to wet mount microscopy, culture, and polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of trichomoniasis in men and women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 200: 188.e181–188.e187.

30.

Hobbs

. Methods for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in the male partners of infected women: implications for control of trichomoniasis. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 3994–3999.

31.

Van Der Shee

van Belkum

Zwiggers

. Improved diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection by PCR using vaginal swabs and urine specimens compared to diagnosis by wet mount, culture and fluorescent staining. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 4127–4130.

32.

Radonjic

Dzamic

Mitrovic

. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis: the sensitivities and specificities of microscopy, culture and PCR assay. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reproduc Biol 2006; 126: 116–120.

33.

Adu-Sarkodi

. Comparison of latex agglutination, wet preparation, and culture for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Sex Transm Infect 2004; 80: 201–203.

34.

Hegazy

El-Tantawy

Soliman

. Performance of rapid immunochromatographic assay in the diagnosis of Trichomoniasis vaginalis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 74: 49–53.

35.

Campbell

Woods

Lloyd

. Evaluation of the OSOM Trichomonas rapid test versus wet preparation examination for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis vaginitis in specimens from women with a low prevalence of infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 3467–3469.

36.

Schmid

Matheny

Zaidi

. Evaluation of six media for the growth of Trichomonas vaginalis from vaginal secretions. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27: 1230–1233.

37.

Borchardt

. A comparison of the sensitivity of the InPouch TV, Diamond's and Trichosel media for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Genitourin Med 1997; 73: 297–298.

38.

el Naga

Khalifa

el Azzouni

. In-pouch TV culture system in diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection. J Egyptian Soc Parasitol 2001; 31: 647–656.

39.

Levi

. Comparison of the InPouch TV culture system and Diamond's modified medium for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 3308–3310.

40.

Smith

. Comparison of conventional testing to polymerase chain reaction in detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in indigenous women living in remote areas. Int J STD AIDS 2005; 16: 811–815.

41.

Wendel

. Use of urine polymerase chain reaction to define the prevalence and clinical presentation of Trichomonas vaginalis in men attending an STD clinic. Sex Transm Infect 2003; 79: 151–153.

42.

Kaydos-Daniels

. Validation of a urine-based PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for use in clinical research settings to detect Trichomonas vaginalis in men. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 318–323.

43.

Schwebke

Lawing

. Improved detection by DNA amplification of Trichomonas vaginalis in males. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 3681–3683.

44.

Kaydos

. Development and validation of a PCR-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with urine for use in clinical research settings to detect Trichomonas vaginalis in women. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 89–95.

45.

Jordan

Lowery

Trucco

. TaqMan-based detection of Trichomonas vaginalis DNA from female genital specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 3819–3822.

46.

Lawing

Hedges

Schwebke

. Detection of trichomonosis in vaginal and urine specimens from women by culture and PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 3585–3588.

47.

Crucitti

. Comparison of culture and different PCR assays for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in self collected vaginal swab specimens. Sex Transm Infect 2003; 79: 393–398.

48.

Pillay

. Comparison of a TaqMan-based real-time polymerase chain reaction with conventional tests for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Sex Transm Infect 2007; 83: 126–129.

49.

Schirm

. Trichomonas vaginalis detection using real-time TaqMan PCR. J Microbiol Meth 2007; 68: 243–247.

50.

Simpson

. Real-time PCRs for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis beta-tubulin and 18S rRNA genes in female genital specimens. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56: 772–777.

51.

Shipitsyna, et al. Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction assays for the diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in Russia. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol Epub ahead of print 12 June 2012. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2012.04593.x.

52.

Hardick

. Comparison between the Gen-Probe transcription-mediated amplification Trichomonas vaginalis research assay and real-time PCR for Trichomonas vaginalis detection using a Roche LightCycler instrument with female self-obtained vaginal swab samples and male urine samples. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 4197–4199.

53.

Munson

. Impact of Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification-based analyte-specific reagent testing in a metropolitan setting of high sexually transmitted disease prevalence. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 3368–3374.

54.

Cosentino

Campbell

Jett

. Use of nucleic acid amplification testing or diagnosis of anorectal sexually transmitted infections. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 2005–2008.

55.

Schwebke

Hobbs

Taylor

. Molecular testing for Trichomonas vaginalis in women: results from a prospective US Clinical trial. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49: 4106–4111.

56.

Ginocchio

Chapin

Smith

. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis and coinfection with Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the United States as determined by the Aptima Trichomonas vaginalis nucleic acid amplification assay. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 2601–2608.

57.

Forna

Gülmezoglu

. Interventions for treating trichomoniasis in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; 2: CD000218–CD000218.

58.

Hager

Brown

Kraus

. Metronidazole for vaginal trichomoniasis seven day vs single-dose regimens. JAMA 1980; 244: 1219–1220.

59.

Thin

Symonds

MAE

Booker

. Double-blind comparison of a single dose and a five-day course of metronidazole in the treatment of trichomoniasis. Brit J Vener Dis l979; 55: 354–356.

60.

Gülmezoglu

Azhar

. Interventions for trichomoniasis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 20115CD000220–CD000220.

61.

Burtin

Taddio

Adburnu

. Safety of metronidazole in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 525–529.

62.

Czeizel

Rockenbauer

. A population based case-control teratologic study of oral metronidazole treatment during pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 105: 322–327.

63.

Caro-Paton

Carvajal

de diego

. Is metronidazole teratogenic: a meta–analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 44: 179–182.

64.

Kissinger

Mena

Levison

. A randomized treatment trial: single versus 7-day dose of metronidazole for the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 55: 565–571.

65.

Zentiva. Summary of product characteristics for Flagyl 400 mg tablets. URL: http://www.medicines.org.uk/EMC/medicine/21216/SPC/Flagyl+400mg+Tablets/ (07 August 2012).

66.

Pearlman

Yashar

Ernst

. An incremental dosing protocol for women with severe vaginal trichomoniasis and adverse reactions to metronidazole. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 934–936.

67.

Kurohara

Kwong

Lebherz

. Metronidazole hypersensitivity and oral desensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1991; 88: 279–280.

68.

WHO 2006. Guidelines on Co-trimoxazole Prophylaxis for HIV related infections among children, adolescents and adults. Recommendations for a public health approach. WHO Guidelines, pp.24–25.

69.

Helms

Mosure

Secor

. Management of Trichomonas vaginalis in women with suspected metronidazole hypersensitivity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 198: 370.e1–370.e7.

70.

Kissinger

Secor

Leichliter

. Early repeated infections with Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-positive and HIV-negative women. CID 2008; 46: 994–999.

71.

Kirkcaldy

Augostini

Asbel

. Trichomonas vaginalis Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in 6 US Cities, STD Surveillance Network, 2009–2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18: 939–943.

72.

Bosserman

Helms

Mosure

. Utility of antimicrobial susceptibility testing in Trichomonas vaginalis-infected women with clinical treatment failure. Sex Transm Dis 2011; 38: 983–987.

73.

Das

Huengsberg

Shahmanesh

. Treatment failure of vaginal trichomoniasis in clinical practice. Int J STD AIDS 2005; 16: 284–286.

74.

Schwebke

Barrientes

. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis isolates with resistance to metronidazole and tinidazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 4209–4210.

75.

Crowell AL, Sanders-Lewis KA and Secor WE. In vitro metronidazole and tinidazole activities against metronidazole-resistant strains of Trichomonas vaginalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 1407–1409.

76.

Mattila

Mannisto

Mantyla

. Comparative pharmacokinetics of metronidazole and tinidazole as influenced by administration route. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 23: 721–725.

77.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. MMWR 2010;59:1-116 http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/vaginal-discharge.htm#a2 (accessed 21 February 2014).

78.

Sobel

Nyirjesy

Brown

. Tinidazole therapy for metronidazole-resistant vaginal trichomoniasis. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1341–1346.

79.

Mammen-Tobin

Wilson

. Management of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis – a new approach. Intl J STD AIDS 2005; 16: 488–490.

80.

Nyirjesy

Sobel

Weitz

. Difficult to treat trichomoniasis: results with paromomycin cream. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 986–988.

81.

Goldman

Upcroft

Workowski

. Treatment of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis. Sexual Health 2009; 6: 345–347.

82.

Lyng

Christensen

. A double blind study of treatment with a single dose tinidazole of partners to females with trichomoniasis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1981; 60: 199–201.

83.

Dykers

. Single dose metronidazole treatment for trichomonal vaginitis – patient and consort. N Eng J Med 1975; 293: 23–24.

84.

Schwebke

Desmond

. A randomized controlled trial of partner notification methods for prevention of trichomoniasis in women. Sex Transm Dis 2010; 37: 392–396.

85.

Kreiger

Verdon

Siegel

. Natural history of urogenital trichomoniasis in men. J Urol 1993; 149: 1455–1458.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.04 MB

United Kingdom National Guideline on the Management of Trichomonas vaginalis 2014

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction and methodology

Scope and purpose

Search strategy

Piloting and consultation, including public and patient involvement

Aetiology

Causative organism

Transmission

Clinical features (Evidence level III)

Symptoms

Signs

Complications

Diagnosis

Sites sampled

Laboratory investigations

Microscopy

Point of care tests Level of evidence: IIb, B

Culture level of evidence: IIb, B

Molecular detection Level of evidence: IIb, B

Management

General advice

Further investigations

Treatment57–59

Recommended regimes (Evidence level Ia, Grade A)

Alternative regimens

Pregnancy and breast feeding

HIV-positive individuals

Reactions to treatment

Allergy

Treatment failure

Treatment protocol for non-response to standard TV therapy (having excluded re-infection and non-adherence)

Availability

Follow up

Contact tracing and treatment

Organisational and financial considerations

Auditable outcome measures

Qualifying statement

Statement of editorial independence

Declarations of interest

Membership of the CEG

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

References

Supplementary Material

Treatment^57–59