Research on the history of psychiatry *

Availability

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Jonathon Erlen ^** and Roger Huijon have provided the following annotated list of dissertations relevant to our field, based on their review of Dissertation Abstracts (2010–11). Entries are in alphabetical order of author; each entry gives title, author, year, doctorate, institution, number of pages (if known) and unique identifier/order number. Note that in titles, no accents are used in Dissertation Abstracts.

Elizabeth F. Loftus: A life history.

Berton, Jennifer Delmhorst, 2009, PhD, University of California, Berkeley, 285 pp. 3411135.

In 2002 the Review of General Psychology printed a list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century and the 25 psychologists most frequently quoted in psychology textbooks. Loftus, a cognitive psychologist, was ranked 58th, and 20th, respectively, and is the highest-ranking female psychologist included. Dr Loftus has also received some of the most vitriolic criticism from both professional colleagues and members of the public. This qualitative study, using techniques from the study of individual lives, attempts to explain why she has been vilified and what motivates her to continue her work despite such harsh criticism.

Demographic changes in school psychology training programs between 1997 and 2005.

Cannon, Sharon, 2009, PhD, Texas Woman’s University, 129 pp. 3384559.

This work analyses data from the 2005 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Graduate Training in School Psychology Database, comprising in part survey responses from program directors of school psychology training programs. This data are compared to a 1998 national training program survey, and the resulting trends related to demographics of programs, student field experiences, and credentialing of school psychologists are described and discussed.

Staging the psyche: Representing the “other scene” in the theater of Michel Tremblay, Marie NDiaye and Wajdi Mouawad.

Choplin, Olivia J, 2009, PhD, Emory University, GA, 194 pp. 3378430.

In examining the works of three contemporary Francophone playwrights, this study touches on broader issues concerning the relationship between theatre and our understanding of the unconscious. First, theoretical links between theatre and psychoanalysis are explored through analysis of shared terms as well as theatrical metaphors prevalent in the discourse of psychoanalysis. In subsequent chapters, the playwrights’ works are examined in light of their treatment and integration of psychic and theatrical space; the author concludes that the theatrical staging of the ‘otherwise invisible actions of the mind’ is a powerful statement arguing for conscious recognition of these potent unconscious structures.

Coach, therapist, or spiritual director? An analysis of discourse about spirituality as used in professional coaching.

Courville, William J, 2009, PhD, University of Ottawa (Canada), 239 pp. NR59507.

Professional coaching, a hybrid intervention melding western therapeutic counselling and spiritual traditions, has recently emerged as a new phenomenon in executive development. The author traces the history and development of spiritual discourse in professional coaching, showing that the application of ancient wisdom and other spiritual traditions was eventually “psychologized” and appropriated by traditional psychology for application to business and professional development. This work demonstrates that the study of the interrelationships among psychology, spirituality and business has a long tradition in the field of psychology of religion and suggests that professional coaching can be seen as an extension of that research.

Speech genres and experience: Mikhail Bakhtin and an embodied cultural psychology.

Cresswell, James Daniel, 2010, PhD, University of Alberta (Canada), 251 pp. NR60166.

Theorists who endeavour to take sociality seriously have made substantial strides, but the phenomenological immediacy of experience has not been well explored or sufficiently addressed. This study proposes an approach to cultural psychology that accounts for such experience. It examines how authors such as Hubert Hermans, James Wertsch, Ken Gergen, Derek Edwards and Jonathan Potter have tended to propose visions of cultural psychology that do not do justice to such experience, partly because they have different analytic interests. To provide this alternative view on cultural psychology, this work turns to the Russian thinker, Mikhail Bakhtin, and his notion of speech genres.

Reading beyond psychoanalysis: Transference effect of literature.

Demir-Atay, Hivren, 2010, PhD, State University of New York at Binghamton, 148 pp. 3403453.

Reading as an encounter refers to a resistance that calls for a reappraisal of the reading models centred on the reader’s identity. This study attempts to trace the nature of this encounter by exploring the relationship between literature and psychoanalysis. The author finds this possibility in Jacques Lacan’s concepts of ‘transference’ and ‘jouissance’, especially as theorized in his later works. Lacan designates the subject as the subject of desire which manifests itself in ‘transference effect’. Self-reflexivity and perversity of literary texts are discussed through the readings of Edgar Allan Poe’s The Purloined letter (1844), Henry James’s The Story in It (1902) and Franz Kafka’s The Judgment (1912). All these short stories dramatize the resistant relation of literature to literalism, opening at the same time the possibility of psychoanalytic readings.

Romantic idiocy: Literature, cognitive disability, and the antisocial.

Desjardins, Molly Sarah, 2009, PhD, University of California, Irvine, 245 pp. 3384608.

The author states that medicine and literature in the Romantic period viewed the social position of the ‘idiot’ – an antisocial individual and construct of both medical and literary discourse – as a proxy for larger social questions touching on the cohesion of an increasingly diverse British society. This work gives specific attention to the role of literature both as a means of dramatizing the social consequences of unproductive members as well as educating them out of their lack of production.

Intersubjectivity in the creative process: A theory inspired by Louise Bourgeois.

Feder, Katharine, 2009, PsyD, California Institute of Integral Studies, 216 pp. 3392688.

The aim of this study is to describe the creative process and its relationship with the psychoanalytic community, through the theoretical lenses of intersubjectivity and infant-parent research. The relationship between the author and her medium, as exemplified by the writings and artistic work of Louise Bourgeois, serves as a focus for the investigation.

The politics of madness in Southern Cone literature of the dictatorship and postdictatorship.

Franco, Bridget Vera, 2009, PhD, University of California, Irvine, 225 pp. 3384597.

The author claims that, rather than being an apolitical subject, representations of the ‘madman’ or ‘madwoman’ can in fact be read as a conduit for thoughtful and critical discourse. The analysis in this work is twofold: first, the author mentions that, through depictions of both real and fictional psychiatric illness in varied media, artists under dictatorship and in its aftermath are engaging in social commentary on the manifold manifestations of repression in such a system. Second, relying on contemporary theories of political philosophy, the author shows how such depictions are attempts to rethink what it means to practise democratic politics in the late twentieth century.

Managing mad mothers: Postpartum depression and the psychiatric gaze.

Godderis, Rebecca, 2009, PhD, University of Calgary (Canada), 229 pp. NR54466.

This dissertation examines the historical development of postpartum depression (PPD) as a concept, with specific attention to the circumstances surrounding its initial classification in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual in the late 1980s. The author questions the current discourse on PPD and describes a potential space for the continual re-characterization of the meaning of PPD in future editions of this reference text.

Vincent van Gogh, a formal and psychological analysis of the final years at Arles, Saint-Remey and Auvers.

Grey, Susan Ann, 2010, PhD, University of Louisville, KY, 292 pp. 3415089.

This is an intensive analysis of Van Gogh’s artworks and letters, focusing on the final three years of his life from February 1888 to July 1890. The author presents a mindset and a worldview that is primarily Jungian, but informed by the works of Julia Kristeva. The union of opposites, complementarities and bipolarities are consistently pointed out on all levels, including lifestyle, words and images, and analysis of the formal elements of art, thus leading to a diagnoses of Bipolar Disorder exacerbated by Borderline Personality Disorder for van Gogh.

From barnyards to bedsides to books and beyond: The evolution and professionalization of registered psychiatric nursing in Manitoba, 1955–1980.

Hicks, Beverley Clare, 2008, PhD, University of Manitoba (Canada), 434 pp. NR52999.

This work traces the development of professional psychiatric nursing in Manitoba during the mid-twentieth century, with particular attention to the eventual reconciliation of competing influences driving the divergence and convergence of psychiatric and general nursing. Factors which led to the current character of psychiatric nursing in Manitoba are explored; they include legislative, personal and logistics reasons.

Oneness: A Buddhist perspective on synchronicity.

Huttar, Caylin, 2009, PhD, Pacifica Graduate Institute, CA, 331 pp. 3406136.

This study explores Jung’s synchronicity principle from the perspective of Buddhist teachings on interdependence. Jung attempted to describe this world of oneness through his synchronicity principle but failed to give a completely satisfying answer due to a fundamental mistake; he emphasized the definition of synchronicity to be acausal, completely uncaused phenomena, rather than penetrating into the depths of interdependence itself. Jung directed his attention on finding a scientific justification for acausal phenomena, which led him into the world of quantum physics. However, this search failed to give Jung a satisfying answer and unfortunately left him and many of his followers in confusion about his most far-reaching and evocative statements on the nature of reality.

Time to account for consciousness.

Lay, Christopher Herbert, 2010, PhD, University of California, Irvine, 178 pp. 3404676.

The author seeks to illuminate the contemporary consciousness debate over the nature of self-consciousness, specifically, how is it that consciousness entails ubiquitous conscious of itself, with a number of insights found in the works of Franz Brentano and Edmund Husserl. This study explores Brentano’s account of consciousness from his Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874), paying particular attention to his notion of incidental awareness. A second key component is the discussion of Husserl’s notion of consciousness from his Logical Investigations (1901/1913). The emphasis is on how the historically motivated temporal approach to self-consciousness, unlike other approaches, withstands the misrepresentation objection.

Moral identity in adolescence: A literature review.

Leonard, Robin J, 2010, PsyD, Azusa Pacific University, CA, 89 pp. 3406256.

The purpose of this literature review is to provide a developmental overview of adolescent moral identity and the various components that are involved in forming and shaping one’s moral identity. In understanding adolescents’ moral identity the author considers five components that contribute to and influence moral identity: (a) moral cognition and attitudes, (b) self-perception and moral emotions, (c) personality, (d) family influences, and (e) social relations and interactions with social institutions.

Masculinity, culture, and politics in psychoanalytic theory: Critiquing power and reclaiming the disposed.

Lewis, Patrick J, 2008, PsyD, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, IL, 89 pp. 3391561.

This study begins with a critical review of psychoanalytic literature examining formulations of masculinity in the context of culture. The author then claims that such formulations are culturally constructed and offers a critique of biological essentialism which, he states, is a major feature of the cultural milieu leading to the current construction of masculinity. The work concludes with a suggested evolution of the psychoanalytic understanding of masculinity.

Two souls dwell within my breast: The encounter with shadow and the problem of the missing fourth, a Jungian interpretation of Goethe’s “Faust”.

Luschei, A Gabriela, 2009, PhD, Pacifica Graduate Institute, CA, 287 pp. 3406157.

Goethe’s masterpiece, Faust, was an essential source for both Freud and Jung, and it played an important role in the foundation of depth psychology. This work introduces Faust, explains its influence on the work of Freud and Jung, and offers a Jungian interpretation which emphasizes Jung’s psychology of religion. The author investigates the problem of evil in the context of Faust, which Goethe modelled in part on the book of Job. Emphasis is placed on Jung’s approach to evil as outlined in his controversial books Answer to Job and Seven Sermons to the Dead.

Rollo May and Carl Jung: A conceptual and historical analysis.

Martinez, Thomas J., III, 2009, PhD, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, CA, 186 pp. 3404485.

The aims of this study were: to investigate the relationship between the theoretical positions of psychologists Rollo May and Carl Jung; to gain a better understanding of the archetypal and existential ideas central to their respective theories; and to contribute to a new foundation for depth oriented humanistic psychology. The psychological theories of May and Jung demonstrate a shared desire for gnosis (knowledge) comparable to the traditional concerns of the Greeks and the Gnostics. This desire for gnosis was apparent in the examination of their individual lives, their psychotherapeutic insights, and the concerns of the depth psychological tradition of which they were a part. Focus is placed on the theories of Jung and May as an expression of gnosis and situates the convergence of their insights in the lineage of thinkers that extends from Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the Gnostics, to Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Tillich and Freud.

Viktor Frankl: His story, therapy and influence on American psychology.

Matthias, Linda K, 2009, PsyD, Alliant International University, San Diego, CA, 176 pp. 3406840.

Viktor Frankl, 1905–97, was a world famous Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who is credited with creating a form of existential analysis known as logotherapy. This study examines how his views on humanistic psychology influenced the growth of the American psychological movement in the second half of the 20th century.

Leon Tutundjian: Trauma, identity and modern art in the aftermath of genocide.

Murachanian, Jean Louise, 2009, PhD, University of California, Los Angeles, 254 pp. 3384044.

This study applies a theoretical framework, based on both the Freudian theories of trauma and contemporary work by Judith Herman, to the images of Leon (Levon) Tutundjian, a twentieth century Armenian artist and survivor of the 1915 Armenian genocide in Turkey. Within these images, the author argues that there is evidence of the sequelae of the artist’s history of lived trauma, as well as his efforts to reconcile his experience of this event with his subsequent life.

Hardiness, well-being, and health: A meta-analytic summary of three decades of research.

Oliver, Celina Marie, 2009, PhD, Portland State University, OR, 263 pp. 3391674.

This work is a synthesis of quantitative research relating to the interplay between the trait of hardiness and its components (commitment, control, challenge) on the one hand and well-being across multiple physical and psychological domains on the other. Multiple meta-analyses were performed to elucidate these relationships, and results suggest that hardiness is moderately related to well-being and somewhat less well correlated with physical health.

Otto Preminger’s “Laura”, “Where the Sidewalk Ends”, and “Angel Face”: An obsession with Freudian psychology.

Palinic, Bo Kristin, 2009, PhD, University of California, Los Angeles, 301 pp. 3410349.

This study analyses the Freudian themes present in Otto Preminger’s three main films noirs: Laura, Where the Sidewalk Ends and Angel Face. Freudian psychology is a key element in the film noir series, and Preminger used Freudian motifs in his noir films more than any other director in this film series. In his three main noirs, Preminger presents the Freudian ideas of obsession, the Death Principle, the Oedipus Complex and the Elektra Complex. His noir films emphasize psychology above plot and action, more so than any other films in the noir series of the classic period of the 1940s and 1950s.

Psychiatrie et ordre social. Analyse des causes d’internement et des diagnostics donnes a l’hopital Saint-Jean-De-Dieu dans une perspective de genre, 1920–1950.

Perreault, Isabelle, 2009, PhD, University of Ottawa (Canada), 388 pp. NR61382.

This study discusses the changes in the practice of psychiatry in Quebec from 1920 to 1950. Special attention is given to the causes for internment in the mental institutions in Quebec, issues surrounding social deviance and mental hygiene, and the evolution of the psychiatric profession in Quebec during this period.

Psychology and the arts: Nineteenth-century roots of an interdisciplinary project.

Pinfold, Mary Melinda, 2009, PhD, University of Alberta (Canada), 254 pp. NR55594.

The author examines the relationship between the visual arts and the practice of psychology, arguing that the two domains are ‘philosophically, historically, and methodologically interdependent.’ This study includes a discussion of the work of the German historian Wilhelm Dilthey as it applies to the academic practice of art history. The fundamental claim of this work is that the arts and art history are a major source of insight into human psychology and guidance in framing psychological research.

The rational double.

Reid, Michael Damon, 2010, PhD, Stanford University, CA, 355 pp. 3395850.

Starting from the premise that the more well-known psychoanalytic exploration of the double has masked a rich literary tradition, the author attempts to define and trace a literary conception of the double in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Anglo-American fiction and philosophy. After first defining terms and framing the discussion through narratology and the analytic philosophy of persons, this work untangles confusions in the literary tradition stemming from a collapse of two distinct classes of the theme, the paranormal and rational traditions, created by Freudian thinkers.

Untangling psychoses: Assessing the social evolution, professional efficacy, and untoward history of psychiatric therapies and clinical diagnoses.

Segriff, Joseph Michael, 2009, DMH, Drew University, NJ, 568 pp. 3393123.

The author places contemporary commentary on psychiatry and the treatment of mentally ill people in an historical context. The study focuses on various therapies as well as ‘some seminal figures that were significant in recent psychiatric history’ including Dr Henry Cotton, Dr Walter Freeman and Dr Ewen Cameron. This work additionally focuses on key figures whose work has led to psychiatric reform; it also traces the evolution of psychiatric therapies and clinical diagnoses over time.

Iranian-American mental health and the contributions of Farhang Holakouee Ph.D., MFT.

Shamloo, Shana, 2009, PsyD, Alliant International University, San Diego, CA, 104 pp. 3391717.

Set amidst the backdrop of the struggles of Iranian immigrants to adjust to life in the USA, this study concentrates on Holakouee, a marital and family therapist (MFT) who has assisted many such individuals with their transition. Specific attention is given to how Holakouee and other colleagues have contributed to Iranian-American mental health and family relations in the USA. Through interviews with Holakouee and material combining the work of various Western mental health theorists and Persian philosophers and poets, a portrait of an interesting and effective therapist emerges.

Psychological subjectivity and the aesthetics of reading in the symbolist literary era (1880–1905).

Silvers, Lauren J., 2010, PhD, University of Chicago, 302 pp. 3408600.

This dissertation investigates the discourse of ‘suggestion’ in the fields of literary practice and experimental psychology at the French fin-de-siècle. Studies that have explored the link between psychology and literature of this period have tended to focus primarily on literary representations of hysteria and other pathologies. In contrast, the author shows that writers’ preoccupations with the suggestive dimensions of language were shaped by the techniques and findings of normal psychology. Psychologists deployed suggestive language in their experiments to produce the embodied states of ‘cerebral exaltation’, ‘hyperesthesia’ and ‘hyper-receptivity’, and they published relevant work in literary journals alongside poems and reviews. Special attention is given to the writings of Stéphane Mallarmé, René Ghil and Remy de Gourmont.

Programmatic changes in school psychology training programs from 1997 to 2007.

Sims, Holleigh Fowler, 2010, PhD, Texas Women’s University, 114 pp. 3414413.

The purposes of this study were: to report the results of a national survey of school psychology training programs conducted by the National Association of School Psychologists in 2005; and to document related trends in this field by comparing this data set with two other national training program surveys completed in 1997 and 2007. The results show the trends in the number of school psychology training programs, APA accreditation/NASP approval, the hours required for program completion, entrance requirements for program admittance, the number of students enrolled, and the number of graduates from these programs.

An archival review and single case study of Sigmund Koch’s “Artists on Art Project”.

Siner Francis, Kate, 2008, PhD, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, CA, 129 pp. 3403404.

This study uses an archival review of Koch’s project (1983–88) and an archival study of a reconstruction of this method in a single case study to elucidate the nature of Koch’s approach to qualitative research. Initially an experimental psychologist of the logical positivist persuasion, Koch spent the better part of his life analysing and critiquing methods of psychological research. His project, aided by a grant from the Ford Foundation and funds from Boston University, used a 4-part, 8-hour interview format in which he and the artist discussed the artist’s biographical information, the artist’s processes, one or more of the artist’s works from start to finish, and the artist’s view of the larger world of art. Koch’s project was created to allow artists to tell psychologists about their experiences through a research method that enhanced rather than diminished their communication. Koch’s method relies on the subjective, intuitive and tacit dimensions of knowledge associated with humanities-based approaches to psychological research.

Remembering trauma in a time of war: The psycho-affective economies of neoliberalism and the radical imagination of dissent.

Spira, Tamara Lea, 2009, PhD, University of California, Santa Cruz, 459 pp. 3384779.

This study discusses the psycho-affective cost to neoliberalism, using feminism and post-colonial theory as well as critical prison studies to elucidate the social consequences of the neoliberal project. Using the dictator Pinochet’s Chile (1973–90) as a paradigm, the author attempts to define specific forms of violence inherent in neoliberalism and to chronicle the rise of the ‘prison-industrial complex’ in its wake. Finally, as violence became embedded in the landscape and thus normalized, the author describes a ‘disappearance as hope’ and the ‘gradual shutting down of memory, intuition, and a marginalization of the imagination’. But the emergence of feminist cultural productions, as exemplified by three authors treated in detail, helped to counteract these forces. The work ends with a juxtaposition and contextualization of these feminist narratives with other dissident narratives, recent social movements across the Americas which elevate memory in their articulation of justice, and a discussion of the implications of these forces for politics in the future.

Unreasonable art.

Traer, Deborah, 2009, PhD, Pacifica Graduate Institute, CA, 247 pp. 3406144.

Outsider Art may best be defined as images that are created by artists who are self-taught, considered to be outside the dominant standards of psychological normality, and unaffected by aesthetic standards and historical traditions of the mainstream art world. The author presents a historical view of Outsider Art, examining it in relation to our Western culture’s shifting attitudes to art and insanity, the nature and function of the creative act, the persistent link between genius and madness, and the influences of Romanticism, Expressionism and Primitivism. Delving into the world of depth psychology, Freud’s attempts to explain the mysteries of the imagination through sublimation and pathography are linked to the world of Outsider Art, and a further exploration into his notion of the uncanny helps to explain the odd psychological responses that this work often stimulates in viewers. Jung’s visionary model of creativity, framed within the dynamics of archetypal structures, is another focus of this project.

Deconstructing America’s Ritalin epidemic: Contrasting US-France Ritalin usage.

Vallee, Manuel, 2009, PhD, University of California, Berkeley, 277 pp. 3410842.

This study examines America’s practice of administering psychiatric medications to children, and focuses on the use of psychostimulants for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. From 1981 to 2003 the use of psychostimulants in the USA has grown tremendously, with Ritalin consumption alone growing 15-fold. The author uses a comparative and systemic approach, contrasting US and French psychostimulant consumption, ADHD treatment approaches, ADHD conceptualizations, ADHD diagnostic definitions for ADHD, psychiatric diagnostic approaches, and regulatory histories concerning psychostimulants. The findings show that 4–6% of all US children are medicated with psychostimulants, compared with only 0.18% of French children with this diagnosis. This is due to a divergence between US and French psychiatry, with the former evolving towards a biological model, while the latter has adhered to a multi-factoral model of mental illness.

Twisted bodies, broken minds: Film and neuropsychiatry in the First World War.

Wagner, Juliet Clare, 2009, PhD, Harvard University, MA, 283 pp. 3385422.

The author examines the use and social role of film in the years following World War I in France, Britain and Germany, particularly as employed by neurologists and psychiatrists chronicling the sequelae of the trauma stemming from the horrors of war. This discussion is used to contextualize treatment of broader questions concerning the use of images in medicine in the early twentieth century, arguing that physicians of the time understood the evolving visual discourse that characterized contemporary film theory as they employed a relatively new medium to express the distress and suffering of their patients.

A psychoanalytic understanding of the regulation of affect in the borderline patient through the use of eating disordered behaviors: A critical review of the literature.

Ware, Anna D., 2010, PsyD, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, 74 pp. 3411580.

The author looks at the childhood bases of Axis II disorders as they relate to the development of eating disorders in youth and young adulthood. She reviews the historical conceptualization of anorexia and bulimia and their development as diagnostic categories in the DSM. This study’s goal is to show that the DSM diagnoses of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are limited in clinical usefulness and that the diagnoses should be reorganized to take one’s personality structure into consideration. Conclusions are made that the eating disorders would be better classified as a pathological means of regulating affect than as a disorder in and of itself and that a new DSM categorization for the anorexic symptoms should be made as a subset of symptoms under various personality disorders.

Teaching Shakespeare in performance: Recent trends and annotated bibliography. Traumatic stress in Macbeth and Shylock.

Wood, Tamara Hulet, 2010, DA, Idaho State University, 186 pp. 3407293.

Shakespeare has long been noted for his insights into acute psychological conditions. This paper extends these earlier studies to examine two important characters: Macbeth and Shylock, who are particularly interesting when studied in light of the mental challenges they undergo. The author claims that understanding trauma and its effects is the key to understanding Macbeth and Shylock, two often criticized characters who can be seen as more sympathetic when their suffering is better comprehended.

Placebos of development: A critique of modern health objectivity in Kant, Marx, and psychoanalysis.

Zeman, Scott, 2009, PhD, Vanderbilt University, TN, 358 pp. 3414586.

This study analyses the relationship between human development and health by seeking to understand their foundations in what both critical and psychoanalytic theory have come to call objectification and, more particularly, the objectification of culture. Incorporating the psychoanalytic idea that the vicissitudes of memory and trust are formed archaically in relation to objects of early need in both individual and sociohistorical development, the author’s goal is a theory of development which links modern objects and cultures of need to their heritage, often called primitive processes of objectification. Special attention is given to Kant’s critical aesthetics and Marx’s theory of fetishism to reveal and track what Kant calls the a priori and what Marx calls the prehistorical or primitive relation between development and objectivity. Psychoanalysis derives from the articulation of the secret (a priori) conditions of experience in Kant, which is rearticulated as the prehistorical conditions of history in Marx. The conceptualization of the unconscious in the more Freudian sense thus becomes possible.