Exergy analysis and nanoparticle assessment of cooking oil biodiesel and standard diesel fueled internal combustion engine

Abstract

In this paper, the exergy analysis and environmental assessment are performed to the biodiesel and diesel-fueled engine at full 294 Nm and 1800 r/min. The exergy loss rates of fuels are found as 15.523 and 18.884 kW for the 100% biodiesel (BDF100) (obtained from cooking oil) and Japanese Industrial Standard Diesel No. 2 (JIS#2) fuels, respectively. In addition, the exergy destruction rate of the JIS#2 fuel is found as 80.670 kW, while the corresponding rate of the BDF100 is determined as 62.389 kW. According to environmental assessments of emissions and nanoparticles of the fuels, the biodiesel (BDF100) fuel is more environmentally benign than the diesel (JIS#2) fuel in terms of particle concentration and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions. So, it is better to use this kind of the 100% biodiesels in the diesel engines for better environment and efficiency in terms of the availability and environmental perspectives.

Keywords

Biodiesel diesel emission exergy internal combustion engine nanoparticle

Introduction

The trend toward new and renewable energy sources has been steadily increasing due to energy crisis, increasing need for energy, industrialization, and environmental pollution. Internal combustion engines are one of the systems that cause environmental pollution.¹ Despite the numerous advantages of diesel engines, the community has some concerns over pollutants of diesel engines. These pollutants disperse to the environment in the form of gas pollutants, particulate matter, and unpleasant odor. Although engine pollutants have an extremely small average diameter, they can cause significant problems for the human body. Diesel engine pollutants, which are toxic air pollutants, are considered to be responsible for various diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema.² The biodiesel fuels and their types that are produced from renewable biomass are an alternative energy sources for internal combustion diesel engines. In the production of the biodiesel fuel, oils of vegetable products such as soybean meal, sunflower, and corn are used.¹ The biodiesel, developed from vegetable or animal oils, is functionally identical to petroleum diesel. The biodiesel is generally produced in blends with the normal diesel; for instance, the B20 biodiesel consists of the 20% biodiesel and the 80% diesel.³

One of the most important challenges is to design efficient and cost-effective systems to meet the environmental requirements. With great energy demands and limited natural resources, it becomes very important to develop systematic approaches, to develop systems, to understand mechanisms that reduce energy and resources, and thus to reduce environmental impacts. In addition to energy analysis, a complete exergy analysis is necessary to identify the components in which inefficiencies occur. While improvements can be made to these components to improve efficiency, the thermodynamic cycle can be optimized to minimize irreversibility.⁴

Exergy is defined as the potential of energy that can be converted to useful work under environmental conditions such as temperature and pressure. If there is a loss of potential during a state change, it is called the loss of exergy.¹ Exergy analysis is based on the first and second laws of thermodynamics and allows the most appropriate evaluation for energy systems. Exergy, also referred to as second law productivity, is found by the availability analysis.⁵ The main advantage of the exergy (availability) analysis is the possibility of determining the value of process-related irreversibility. In this context, exergy analysis reveals exergy degradation and efficiency in different systems.^6,7

Man et al.⁸ studied on direct-injection diesel engine in terms of emissions of B10 (diesel containing 10 vol.% of biodiesel), B20, B30, neat biodiesel (B100), and neat diesel fuels. It was observed that the increase of biodiesel in the blended fuel decreased the CO, HC, and particle mass concentrations, while it increased the NO _x for regulated emissions. When biodiesel was added to the diesel fuel, it reduced total hydrocarbon emissions. Aghbashlo et al.⁹ examined the effect of a novel soluble hybrid nanocatalyst in diesel/biodiesel fuel blends on exergetic performance parameters of a diesel engine at two engine speeds and five different loads. As the engine speed increased, the exergy efficiency decreased. On the other hand, the exergy efficiency increased with the increase of the engine load. Caliskan and Mori¹⁰ used the diesel and the biodiesel fuels for particle and emission evaluation using environmental, economic, and thermodynamic analyses. Caliskan and Mori¹¹ examined the exhaust emissions with various blended biodiesel fuels and JIS#2 diesel fuel at 100, 200 Nm, and full load. This study showed that when biodiesel fuel was used, the emission rates were generally better than diesel fuel emission. Hoseinia et al.¹² investigated the effects of factors such as turbocharger, air pressure, fuel injection pressure, and biofuel on exhaust emissions. When the percentage of biodiesel in the fuel was increased, the amount of NO _x increased too. Radhakrishnan et al.¹³ studied on the effect of nanoparticle on the emission and performance characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with cashew nut shell biodiesel fuels (BD100 and BD100A) at various engine torques. When the engine was loaded at low load, the formation of HC emissions was in a lower range. In addition, NO _x emissions of the BD100A and BD100 biodiesel fuels were higher than the diesel fuel. The low cetane index of the BD100 was shown as the reason for this situation. As a result, the BD100A had lower HC and CO emissions than the BD100.

The main object of this study is to examine and compare the biodiesel fuel, which is obtained from the cooking oil and standard diesel fuel along with exergy and environmental perspectives. The exhaust emission values and particle numbers (PNs) are measured and compared for these diesel and biodiesel fuels. The nanoparticle measurement of the fuels is done with the new technology such as Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) device. Hence, the assessment of the nanoparticles is done more sensitive in terms of the diameter and number of the particles.

System description

The system mainly consists of a diesel engine, diesel and the biodiesel fuels and measurement devices. In the present study, Japanese Industrial Standard Diesel No. 2, which is known as JIS#2, and 100% biodiesel (known as BDF100) fuels are used to operate the diesel engine. The diesel engine is worked at full load (294 Nm) for the BDF100 biodiesel and JIS#2 diesel fuels. Also, the engine speed is considered as 1800 1/min. In order to measure the exhaust emissions and nano-particles, a SMPS is used as a particle size analyzer. The control volume of the diesel engine is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Control volume of the diesel engine.

The engine is direct injection DOHC 16-valve L4 DI TCI D diesel engine.¹⁴ The diesel engine used in this study is preferred due to its common rail injection system, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system, and water cooler unit which are suitable for both fuel types for experimental studies. This engine is also used for various truck companies due to its capability and various fuel adaptation. The maximum power and maximum torque of the engine are 96 kW and 294 Nm, respectively. Furthermore, the diesel engine turbocharger has been switched off to clearly compare the EGR fuel effects.

Cooking oil consists of edible vegetable oils derived from safflower, olives, and peanuts. It is also liquid at room temperature. Some vegetable oils such as peanuts, coconut, sunflower, and olive oils are cold pressed. Most of oil sources are not suitable for cold pressing because they leave undesirable elements in the oil.¹⁵ The biodiesel is a renewable fuel in that it is a biodegradable fuel manufactured domestically from vegetable oils, recycled restaurant grease, or animal fats. The biodiesel meets both the overall advanced biofuel requirement of the Renewable Fuel Standard and the biomass-based diesel. It is a liquid fuel, generally known as the B100 or the pure biodiesel. The biodiesel is used to fuel compression ignition engines, just like the petrol diesel. In cold weather, the biodiesel performance depends on a mixture of the biodiesel, feedstock, and the petroleum diesel characteristics. In smaller percentages, blends with the biodiesel generally perform better performances in cold weather. In particular, normal No. 2 diesel and B5 (the 5% biodiesel, the 95% diesel) perform the same outcomes in cold weather.¹⁶

The biodiesel, which is used in many diesel vehicles without any engine modifications, can be used as a blend with many petrol diesel fuels. B20, the biodiesel that ranges from 6 to 20% blended with petroleum jelly, is the most common biodiesel blend. In addition, the B5 (the 5% biodiesel, the 95% diesel) is also widely used in fleet vehicles.¹⁷ The production of the biodiesel for commercial started in the 1990s. The limiting factors of the biodiesel industry are raw material prices, the biodiesel production costs, crude oil prices, and taxation of energy products. However, the biodiesel becomes more attractive due to its environmental benefits.¹⁸ There is a standard widely used in Japan for diesel fuel as Voluntary Japanese Industry Standard (JIS) K 2204 “Diesel Fuel.” JIS K 2204 contains five classes of the diesel fuel. These classes are: No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, Special No. 1, and Special No. 3. On road vehicles (passenger vehicles, trucks and buses), No. 2 diesel fuel is usually used. The Special No. 3 diesel is used as winter class in some cold climate regions.¹⁹

The BDF100 biodiesel and the JIS#2 diesel fuels are compared in some aspects. Some of these aspects include: kinematic viscosity, density, cloud point, flash point, pour point, and acid number. The kinematic viscosity of the BDF100 biodiesel and JIS#2 diesel fuels is 6.270 and 3.743 mm²/s, respectively. The density of the BDF100 is 882 kg/m³, and the density of JIS#2 is 831 kg/m³. The cloud point of the BDF100 and JIS#2 fuels is 6 and –1°C, respectively. The flash point of the BDF100 is 180°C, and the flash point of the JIS#2 is 70°C, while the pour point of the BDF100 is –7°C, and the pour point of the JIS#2 is –19°C. The acid number of BDF100 and JIS#2 is found as 0.1495 and 0.0645 mgKOH/g, respectively. The data of the experimental study is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Data of the experimental study.

${\dot{m}}_{fuel}$ (kg/s)	${\dot{m}}_{air}$ (kg/s)	$T_{air, in}$ (°C)	${\dot{V}}_{air}$ (L/s)	$T_{exh}$ (°C)	$P_{exh}$ (bar)	${\dot{m}}_{CO}$ (kg/s)	${\dot{m}}_{HC}$ (kg/s)	${\dot{m}}_{N O_{x}}$ (kg/s)	${\dot{m}}_{C O_{2}}$ (kg/s)	$T_{cw}$ (°C)
BDF100 biodiesel
3.276 × 10^–3	63.246 × 10^–3	25.7	53.02	364	66.650 × 10^–3	2.266 × 10^–6	0.227 × 10^–6	84.917 × 10^–6	10314.630 × 10^–6	80.0
JIS#2 diesel
3.264 × 10^–3	61.969 × 10^–3	25.5	51.90	393	70.649 × 10^–3	3.297 × 10^–6	0.824 × 10^–6	82.333 × 10^–6	10269.778 × 10^–6	80.2

Analysis

Exergy analysis is performed to the system. Also, the experimental results are examined in terms of environmental assessment.

Exergy balance of the system can be calculated as follows

\sum \dot{E} x_{in} = \sum \dot{E} x_{out} + \dot{E} x_{dest}

(1)

\dot{E} x_{air} + \dot{E} x_{fuel} = \dot{E} x_{W} + \dot{E} x_{exh} + \dot{E} x_{loss} + \dot{E} x_{dest}

(2)

where

\sum \dot{E} x_{in}

is total exergy input rate,

\sum \dot{E} x_{out}

is total exergy output rate, and

\dot{E} x_{dest}

is exergy destruction rate of the system. In addition,

\dot{E} x_{air}

\dot{E} x_{fuel}

\dot{E} x_{W}

\dot{E} x_{exh}

, and

\dot{E} x_{loss}

are exergy rate of air, exergy rate of fuel, exergetic work rate (power), exhaust exergy rate, and exergy loss rate of the system, respectively.

The exergy rate of air ( $\dot{E} x_{air}$ ) is found from

\dot{E} x_{air} = {\dot{m}}_{air} c_{p, air, in} [(T_{air, in} - T_{0}) - T_{0} \ln (\frac{T_{air, in}}{T_{0}})]

(3)

where

{\dot{m}}_{air}

is mass flow rate of air,

c_{p, air, in}

is specific heat capacity of intake air,

T_{air, in}

is inlet temperature of the intake air, and

T_{0}

is dead state (reference) temperature (21°C).

The exergy rate of fuel ( $\dot{E} x_{fuel}$ ) can be determined by¹¹

\dot{E} x_{fuel} = {\dot{m}}_{fuel} H_{u} ε_{fuel}

(4)

In this formulation, ${\dot{m}}_{fuel}$ is mass flow rate of fuel, $H_{u}$ is lower heating value of the fuel, and $ε_{fuel}$ is chemical exergy factor. $H_{u}$ is determined as 37655.881 kJ/kg and 45236.425 kJ/kg for the BDF100 biodiesel and JIS#2 diesel fuels,¹¹ respectively. The $ε_{fuel}$ value of the BDF100 is 1.0751, and the $ε_{fuel}$ value of the JIS#2 is 1.0697.²⁰

The system’s exergetic work rate ( $\dot{E} x_{W}$ ) is found by

\dot{E} x_{W} = ω T

(5)

The exhaust exergy of the system ( $\dot{E} x_{exh}$ ) is found as follows

\dot{E} x_{exh} = \sum_{i = 1}^{n} {\dot{m}}_{i} (e x_{tm, i} + e x_{ch, i})

(6)

where

e x_{tm, i}

and

e x_{ch, i}

are specific physical and specific chemical exergy rates of ith exhaust gas component, respectively.

The specific physical exergy rate of ith exhaust gas component ( $e x_{tm, i}$ ) is found from

e x_{tm, i} = [(h_{i} - h_{0}) - T_{0} (s_{i} - s_{0})] = c_{p, i} [(T_{exh} - T_{0}) - T_{0} \ln (\frac{T_{exh}}{T_{0}})]

(7)

where

T_{exh}

is exhaust temperature of the engine.

The specific chemical exergy rate of the ith exhaust gas component ( $e x_{ch, i}$ ) (kJ/kg) is determined with the help of the specific molar chemical exergy rate of the ith exhaust gas component ( ${\bar{e x}}_{ch, i}$ ) (kJ/kmol) as follows:

{\bar{e x}}_{ch, i} = \bar{R} T_{0} \ln (\frac{y_{i}}{y_{env, i}})

(8)

In this formula, $\bar{R}$ is universal gas constant, $y_{i}$ is molar fraction of ith exhaust gas component in the exhaust gases, and $y_{env, i}$ is molar fraction of ith exhaust gas component in the environment. Molar fractions of exhaust gas components in the environment can be found from elsewhere.²¹ The molar fractions of the exhaust gas components in the exhaust gases are given in Table 2.

Table 2.

Molar fractions of the exhaust gas components at full load ( $y_{i}$ , %).²¹

Fuel	Exhaust gas	$y_{i}$ (%)
BDF100	CO	0.0058
	HC	0.0029
	NO _x	0.0886
	CO₂	11.55
JIS#2	CO	0.0039
	HC	0.0008
	NO _x	0.089
	CO₂	11.35

The exergy loss rate of the system ( $\dot{E} x_{loss}$ ) is determined as follows

\dot{E} x_{loss} = Q_{loss} (1 - \frac{T_{0}}{T_{cw}})

(9)

where

T_{cw}

is cooling water temperature of the engine. The heat loss rate of the system

(Q_{loss})

is found as 92.916 kW for the BDF100 biodiesel fuel and 112.713 kW for the JIS#2 diesel fuel.

The exergy destruction rate of the system ( $\dot{E} x_{dest}$ ) can be found from the exergy balance equation

\dot{E} x_{dest} = \dot{E} x_{air} + \dot{E} x_{fuel} - \dot{E} x_{W} - \dot{E} x_{exh} - \dot{E} x_{loss}

(10)

The exergy efficiency of the system ( $ψ$ ) is calculated from

ψ = (\frac{\dot{E} x_{W}}{\dot{E} x_{fuel}}) 100

(11)

The entropy generation rate ( $S_{gen}$ ) is determined as

S_{gen} = \frac{\dot{E} x_{dest}}{T_{0}}

(12)

Fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, mainly include carbon and hydrogen. Often, carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO₂), and hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water vapor (H₂O). CO₂ is the cause of the greenhouse effect.²² Since greenhouse gases trap more of the energy of the sun in the atmosphere of the earth, they are contributing to global warming. As fossil fuels continue to be burned, people are responsible for adding much more CO₂ to the air.²³

During incomplete combustion of diesel fuel, soot or particulate matter is formed. The composition generally contains hundreds of chemical elements including elemental carbon, ammonium, sulphates, nitrates, condensed organic compounds, and even carcinogenic compounds and heavy metals such as selenium, arsenic, zinc, and cadmium. Particulate matters that contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and even premature death, irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Diesel engines contribute to problems because they release the particulates directly into the air and release oxides of nitrogen and sulfur which are converted into “secondary” particles in the atmosphere. Diesel emissions of nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, which is irritating to the respiratory system, causing low lung capacity, coughing, and drowning. Diesel exhaust is classified as a potential human carcinogen in research. For example, occupational health work of truck and bus garages, docks, and railway workers exposed to high levels of diesel exhaust for many years shows a 20–50% increase in the risk of lung cancer or mortality consistently.²⁴

The interdisciplinary focus on interaction between human and non-human components in the biosphere can be called as the basic Environmental Analysis. Environmental Analysis presents a unified and holistic view of life as well as a program for creating positive change.²⁵ In environmental analysis, analytical chemistry, and some other techniques are used to study the environment.²⁶

The measurement of exhaust emission values is important for the detection of harmful gases released to the environment.^27,28 In this study, it is determined how much of the CO, HC, NO _x , and CO₂ exhaust gases and soot are released to the environment. Particle channel sizes and concentrations are measured by using SMPS device. The size capability of the SMPS provides a significant advantage when examining the particle concentration. SMPS can be used to measure the channel size of particles as “nm” and particle concentration as “1/cm³.” The running point of the engine is set at full load (294 Nm) and 1800 r/min. The coolant temperature is also fixed at 80°C. The particle size distribution and PN concentration of the diesel and the biodiesel fuels are measured by changing the sample probe.

Results and discussion

The BDF100 biodiesel fuel and the JIS#2 diesel fuel are used in the diesel engine at 1800 r/min and full load. The exhaust emissions, specific fuel consumptions, particle concentration, and soot of the engine for two fuels are experimentally analyzed. Also, the exergy (availability) analysis is applied to the system. The experimental results of the system can be seen in Table 3. In addition, the exhaust emissions of the fuels at full load are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Exhaust emissions of the fuels.

Table 3.

Experimental results of the system.

	Exhaust emission (g/kWh)				Total particle concentration (#/cm³)	Fuel consumption (g/kWh)	Soot (mg/m³)	Lower heating value (kJ/kg)
	CO	HC	NO _x	CO₂	Total particle concentration (#/cm³)	Fuel consumption (g/kWh)	Soot (mg/m³)	Lower heating value (kJ/kg)
BDF100 biodiesel	0.1634	0.0164	6.1251	743.9998	916323.69	236.28	0.29	37655.88
JIS#2 diesel	0.2214	0.0554	5.5291	689.6773	2205061.04	219.22	1.35	45236.42

When the emissions from the diesel engine to the environment are examined, the BDF 100 fuel is a better option for CO emissions. The BDF100 has 26.20% less CO emission and 70.40% less HC emission than JIS#2. However, when the NO _x emissions from diesel engine are examined, the BDF100 has 10.78% more NO _x emission than JIS#2. In addition, the BDF100 has 7.88% more CO₂ emission than JIS#2. When these results are considered, BDF100 fuel has the disadvantage that it has a higher value in terms of NO _x and CO₂ emissions, while it is obtained as a better option in terms of CO and HC emissions.

The specific fuel consumptions of the system can be seen in Figure 3. The specific fuel consumption of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is 7.78% more than the JIS#2 diesel fuel.

Figure 3.

Specific fuel consumptions of the system.

The particle mobility diameter range is obtained between 4 and 256 nm. The maximum particle concentration of the JIS#2 diesel fuel is below 10⁶ 1/cm³, while the maximum particle concentration of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is over 10⁶ 1/cm³. However, the total particle concentration of the JIS#2 diesel fuel is found as 2205061.04 1/cm³, while the total particle concentration of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is calculated as 916323.69 1/cm³. Therefore, it can be seen that the B100 decreased the total particle concentration by around 58.45%. Thus, the use of BDF100 biodiesel fuel has been shown to decrease the total concentration of nanoparticles in comparison with JIS#2 diesel fuel. The particle mobility diameter of BDF100 is classified into 4–16 nm, while the particle diameter of JIS#2 is classified into 4–256 nm. According to these results, the choice of fuel for the diesel engine affects the nanoparticle concentration and the nanoparticle mobility diameter. It may be useful for the environmental assessment. The variation of particle concentration of the fuels at full load is shown in Figure 4. In addition, the comparison of the total particle concentration changes of the fuels is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 4.

Particle concentration variation of the fuels.

Figure 5.

Comparison of the total particle concentration changes of the fuels.

Exergy (availability) analysis is applied to the data taken from the system for both of the fuels. The exergy analysis results of the system are tabulated in Table 4. Also, the comparison of the exergetic results and the exergy efficiency comparison of the fuels are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.

Figure 6.

Comparison of the exergetic results.

Figure 7.

Exergy efficiency comparison.

Table 4.

Exergy (availability) analysis results of the system.

	BDF100	JIS#2
Exergy analysis
$\dot{E} x_{air}$ (kW)	2.361 × 10^–3	2.122 × 10^–3
$\dot{E} x_{fuel}$ (kW)	132.614	157.961
$\dot{E} x_{W}$ (kW)	49.884	53.579
$\dot{E} x_{exh}$ (kW)	4.820	4.830
$\dot{E} x_{loss}$ (kW)	15.523	18.884
$\dot{E} x_{dest}$ (kW)	62.389	80.670
$ψ$ (%)	37.616	33.919
$S_{gen}$ (kW/K)	1.603	1.513

As a result, the exergy fuel rates of the JIS#2 diesel fuel are calculated as 157.961 kW, while the exergy fuel rate of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is found as 132.614 kW. In terms of fuel exergy, the BDF 100 has an obvious superiority. However, the exergy loss of the JIS#2 diesel fuel is 21.65% more than the BDF100 biodiesel fuel. In this regard, BDF100 is a better option in terms of exergy loss. The exergy loss rates of the fuels are found as 15.523 and 18.884 kW for the BDF100 and JIS#2, respectively. On the other hand, the exergy destruction rate of the JIS#2 is determined as 80.670 kW, while the exergy destruction rate of the BDF100 is calculated as 62.389 kW. When the fuels are examined in terms of exergy destruction, BDF100 is a better option.

The exergy efficiency of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is higher than the JIS#2 diesel fuel. The exergy efficiency rates of fuels are determined as 37.391 and 34.498% for BDF100 and JIS#2, respectively. Considering the exergy efficiency, it can be seen that using the BDF100 fuel gives better result.

For the comparison, some previously conducted papers are investigated. Lapuerta et al.²⁹ used the conventional low sulfur diesel fuel and the B1 and B2 biodiesel fuels from used cooking oil to operate the engine. The maximum torque of the engine was 237.43 Nm, and the maximum PN was found around 5.5 × 10⁻⁸ g/cm³. The SMPS was also used as exhaust gas and particle size analyzer. Kim and Choi³⁰ compared the exhaust emissions for the Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel (D100), blend of the diesel fuel with 15% (by vol.) bioethanol (E15), blend of the diesel fuel with 15% bioethanol and cetane improver (E15CI), mixed fuel of the biodiesel and bioethanol (BD15E5), and the BD05 and the BD20 biodiesel fuels. The condensation particle counter and SMPS were used as analyzers. The engine speeds were chosen as 2100 and 3800 r/min. The maximum particle size was calculated as 385 nm, while the minimum particle size was found as 50 nm. In another study, Rounce et al.³¹ calculated the maximum PN around 6.1 × 10⁶ 1/cm³ for the ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD) fuel and rapeseed methyl ester biodiesel fuel with EGR and SMPS emission analyzers, while the maximum engine torque was 39.2 Nm. Su et al.³² studied on exhaust emissions comparison of the biodiesel fuels derived from used cooking oil and ULSD. It was found that the maximum particle size was around 1.65 × 10⁸ 1/cm³ at 1500 r/min for premixed LTC mode with 40% EGR. Mori et al.¹⁴ examined the exhaust emission of the BDF20, BDF50, and BDF100 biodiesel and the JIS#2 diesel fuels. The engine exhaust particle sizer was used to analyze the particle size. Also, the diesel engine was operated at 200 Nm engine load. In this context, the maximum particle size was measured as 560 nm, while the minimum one was determined as 5.6 nm. In the present study, the PN and sizes of the BDF100 biodiesel and JIS#2 diesel fuels are measured by SMPS, while the engine is operated at full load (294 Nm) and 1800 r/min. As a result, the maximum PN is determined as 1 × 10⁶ 1/cm³.

Conclusions

In this study, the BDF100 biodiesel and the JIS#2 diesel fuels are used to operate the diesel engine at full load. The system is examined in terms of the availability and environmental perspectives. Considering the assumption and condition of the system, the following main conclusions can be drawn (the conclusions are based only on the considered criteria of this study. Other environmental, societal, and economic aspects are not included):

The specific fuel consumption increases with the use of BDF100 biodiesel fuel. The specific fuel consumption of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel is 7.78% more than the JIS#2 diesel fuel. If the BDF100 fuel is chosen as a fuel, it causes more fuel consumption compared to JIS#2 fuel to obtain the same power. This situation can be considered for economic assessment considering the fuels’ prices in different countries.

The BDF100 biodiesel fuel decreases the total particle concentration by around 58.45%. This result shows the importance of the BDF100 fuel in terms of emissions to the environment.

The maximum CO and HC emissions are calculated for the JIS#2 diesel fuel, while the maximum NO _x and CO₂ emissions are found for the BDF100 biodiesel fuel. The CO emissions are reduced by 26.20% with the use of BDF 100 biodiesel fuel instead of JIS#2 diesel fuel.

The NO _x emissions increased by 10.78% with the use of BDF 100 biodiesel fuel. Besides the NO _x emissions, the BDF100 has 7.88% more CO₂ emission than JIS#2 diesel fuel.

The exergy loss decreases with the use of BDF 100 biodiesel fuel instead of JIS#2 diesel fuel.

The JIS#2 diesel fuel causes more irreversibility than the BDF100 biodiesel fuel. The entropy production is related with irreversibility, and it cannot be desired in any system.

The exergy efficiency is increased with the use of the BDF100 biodiesel fuel instead of JIS#2 diesel fuel.

As a main conclusion, the biodiesel (BDF100) fuel is more environmentally benign than the diesel (JIS#2) fuel in terms of nanoparticle concentration and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions. So, it is better to use this kind of 100% biodiesels in the diesel engines for better environment and efficiency. Because the fuel used in reducing emissions from the diesel engine to the environment is very important. The data obtained from this study can be helpful for the selection of fuels used in diesel engines. According to the criteria taken into consideration, the use of biodiesel fuel can be recommended and encouraged in diesel engines.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ibrahim Yildiz (MSc) is a Mechanical Engineer. He is currently a PhD Student in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science at Usak University, Turkey. He has got two SCI indexed and one EI indexed journal papers and three conference proceedings. His main areas of interest are energy, exergy, environmental, efficiency, exergoeconomic and sustainability analyses, diesel engines, exhaust emission, engine after treatment systems and nano particle matter, fuels (diesel and biodiesel), etc. He worked as a researcher at Teikyo University between 13 October 2017 and 28 January 2018.

Hakan Caliskan (PhD) is working as an Academic (Associate Professor) in Department of Mechanical Engineering at Usak University, Turkey. He also worked as a Professor in Kyung Hee University, Korea, visiting researcher in University of Ontario, Institute of Technology in Canada, and Visiting Professor in Teikyo University, Japan. He is the youngest Associate Professor Dr of Mechanical Engineering in Turkey. He received all of his BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees with first class honor. He has more than fifty papers (based on thermodynamics, energy, exergy, environment, thermoeconomy, sustainability analyses of various energy systems) in the international bases (SCI/SCIE/SSCI/etc). His research interest is concerned primarily with thermodynamic, energy, exergy, efficiency, thermoeconomic, sustainability and environmental analyses, energy and environmental policy, thermodynamics/energy systems, internal combustion engines, emission treatment systems, exhaust emissions and nano particles, energy-efficient buildings, fuels, thermal energy storage systems, heat exchangers, heat pumps, renewable energy (wind, solar, etc.), hydrogen, heating and cooling systems, etc. His h index is “20” and i-10 index is “23”.

Kazutoshi Mori is a Professor in Department of Mechanical and Precision System of Faculty of Science and Engineering at Teikyo University, Japan. His main research themes are diesel engine combustion, exhaust emission reduction, fuel consumption improvement, advanced diesel engines, biofuel combustion research and next-generation automobiles. He has many papers in conferences and SCI, SCIE, Scopus, EI indexed journals.

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