In this article, we explore the interaction between female and male employment, parenting responsibilities and family policy in Russia and Sweden. The study is based first on indicators of public social services, assistance for families and labour force data; and second, on the ISSP modules on Family and Changing Gender Roles (years 1994, 2002). The results show that both Sweden and Russia facilitate the `dual-earner' family model, but that Sweden places a greater emphasis on dual-caring and flexible work arrangements for women. The support for traditional gender roles was much higher and more uniform in Russia than in Sweden. The proportion of `dual-earner' and female-led families was nevertheless higher in Russia than in Sweden, especially in 1994 when major restructuring in the social and economic sphere was occurring. The findings suggest that family policy is instrumental in facilitating female employment, but does not necessarily bring changes in gender-role attitudes.
Aivazova, S.G. (2001) Гендеpнoе pавенсTвo в кoнTексTе пpав челoвека [Gender equality in the context of human rights]. Moscow : Eilan.
2.
Alwin, D.F., Braun, M. and Scott, J. (1992) `The Separation of Work and Family: Attitudes Towards Female Labour Force Participation in Germany, Great Britain and the United States', European Sociological Review8 (1): 13—37.
3.
Antonov, A.I. (1995) `СTpаTеΓия фамилисTическиx исследoваний и пoлиTика семейнoй «пpиваTизации' [The strategy of family research and the policy of family privatization], Семья в Рoссии [Family in Russia]1—2.
4.
Antonov, A.I. and Borisov, V.A. (1990) Кpизис семьи и пyTи еΓo пpеoдoления [The crisis of the family and ways to overcome it]. Moscow : Sociology Institute of the USSR.
5.
Axelsson, C. (1992) Hemmafrun som Försvann. Stockholm : Stockholm University.
6.
Barsukova, S.Y.E. (2001) `Мoдели yспеxа женщин СoвеTскoΓo и пoсTсoвеTскoΓo пеpиoдoв. ИдеoлoΓическoе мифoTвopчесTвo' [Models of success among women during the Soviet and post-Soviet periods: ideological myth-making], СОЦИС [Sociological Research]2: 75—82.
7.
Blomqvist, P. (2004) `The Choice Revolution: Privatization of Swedish Welfare Services in the 1990s', Social Policy and Administration38 (2): 139—55.
8.
Brainerd, E. (2000) `Women in Transition: Changes in Gender Wage Differentials in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union', Industrial and Labor Relations Review54 (1): 138—62.
9.
Crompton, R. (ed.) (1999) Restructuring Gender Relations and Employment: the Decline of the Male Breadwinner. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10.
Darmodekhin, S.V. (2001) Семья и ΓoсyдаpсTвo [Family and state]. Moscow: NII Sem'i.
11.
Duvander, A-Z. (2000) Couples in Sweden. Studies of Family and Work. Stockholm: Stockholm University.
12.
Einhorn, B. (1993) Cinderella Goes to Market: Citizenship, Gender and Women`s Movements in East Central Europe. London and New York: Verso.
13.
Ericsson, R.E. (1995) `The Russian Economy Since Independence', in G. W. Lapidus (ed.) The New Russia. Troubled Transformation. Boulder, CA and San Francisco, CA: Westview Press.
14.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Eurostat (2006) Accessed on 02.05.2006 at: [http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int].
15.
Federal Law (2005) N 180-FZ `Об oTдельныx вoпpoсаx исчисления и выплаTы пoсoбий пo вpеменнoй неTpyдoспoсoбнoсTи, пo беpеменнoсTи и poдам, и pазмеpаx сTpаxoвoΓo oбеспечения пo oбязаTельнoмy сoциальнoмy сTpаxoванию oT несчасTныx слyчаев на пpoизвoдсTве и пpoфессиoнальныx забoлеванияx в 2006 ' [On the issue of the calculation and payment of the unemployment, pregnancy and childbirth benefits, and the scale of social security provision in cases of work related accidents and illnesses in 2006], Сoбpание закoнoдаTельсTва Рoссийскoй Φедеpации [Corpus of legislative acts of the Russian Federation], 2005 N 52: 5593.
16.
Försäkringskassan (2002) Föreldrapenning. Enheten för barn och familj. Accessed on 25.07.2006 at: [http://www.forsakringskassan.se/omförsäkringskassan/publikationer ].
17.
Gornick, J., Meyers, M. and Ross, K. (1997) `Supporting the Employment of Mothers: Policy Variation Across Fourteen Welfare States'. Journal of European Social Policy7(1): 45—70.
Gottfried, H. (2000) `Compromising Positions: Emergent neo-Fordism and Embedded Gender Contracts', British Journal of Sociology51 (2): 235—59.
22.
Gross, S.J. and Niman, C.M. (1975) `Attitude—Behavior Consistency: a Review ', The Public Opinion Quarterly39 (3): 358—68.
23.
Hiilamo, H. (2004) `Changing Family Policy in Sweden and Finland During the 1990s', Social Policy and Administration38 (1): 21—40.
24.
Issp (2006) International Social Survey Programme. Accessed on 15.04.2006 at: [ http://www.gesis.org/en/data_service/issp/].
25.
Klimenkova, T. (1994) `What Does Our New Democracy Offer Society', in A. Posadskaya (ed.) Women in Russia. A New Era in Russian Feminism. London: Verso.
26.
Lewis, J. (1992) `Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes ', Journal of European Social Policy2 (3): 159—73.
27.
Lewis, J. and Åström, G. (1992) `Equality, Difference, and State Welfare: Labour Market and Family Policies in Sweden', FeministsStudies18 (1): 59—87.
28.
Lewis, J., Campbell, M., and Huerta, C. (2008) `Patterns of Paid and Unpaid Work in Western Europe: Gender, Commodification, Preferences and the Implications for Policy', Journal of European Social Policy18 (1): 21—37.
29.
Lindblom, A. and Rothstein, B. (2004) `The Mysterious Survival of the Swedish Welfare State', paper presented at conference of theAmerican Political Science Association (Sep.), Chicago, IL, USA.
30.
Manning, N. and Shaw, I. (1998) `The Transferability of Welfare States: a Comparison of the Scandinavian and State Socialist Models in Relation to Finland and Estonia', Social Policy and Administration32 (5): 572—90.
31.
McBroom, W.H. and Reed, F.W. (1992) `Toward a Reconceptualization of Attitude—Behavior Consistency', Social Psychology Quarterly55 (2): 205—16.
32.
Oecd (2001) Starting Strong: Early Childhood Education and Care. Accessed on 1.11.2006 at: [www.oecd.org].
33.
Olsson, S.E. (1993) Social Policy and Welfare State in Sweden. Lund: Arkiv.
34.
Orloff, A.S. (1993) `Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: the Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States', American Sociological Review58: 303—28.
35.
Pfau-Effinger, B. (2003) `КyльTypные фенoмены и семейная пoлиTика в ВoсToчнoй и Западнoй Геpмании' [Cultural phenomena and family policy in Eastern and Western Germany], СОЦИС [Sociological Research]10.
36.
Plotnikov, A.D. (2001) ГoсyдаpсTвенная семейная пoлиTика в Рoссийскoй Φедеpации: Tенденции pеализации в 90x XX [State family policy in the Russian Federation: tendencies of its implementation in the 1990s]. Moscow: Moscow Humanities University.
37.
Russian Statistical Office (2006) ОxваT деTей дoшкoльными yчpеждениями (на кoнец Γoда, в пpoценTаx oT численнoсTи деTей сooTвеTсTвyющеΓo вoзpасTа [The number of children in preschool (as a percentage of all children in the respective age groups)]. Accessed on 04.11.2006 at: [http://stat.edu.ru].
38.
Sainsbury, D. (1996) Gender, Equality and Welfare States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
39.
Scott, J. and Duncombe, J. (1992) `Gender-role Attitudes in Britain and the USA', in Gillbert, S. A. A. N. (ed.) Women and Working Lives. New York: St Martin's Press.
40.
Scott, J., Alwin, D.F. and Braun, M. (1996) `Generational Changes in Gender-role Attitudes: Britain in a Cross-national Perspective', Sociology30 (3): 471—92.
41.
Sjöberg, O. (2002) `The Role of Family Policy Institutions in Explaining Gender-role Attitudes: a Comparative Multilevel Analysis of Thirteen Industrialized Countries', Journal of European Social Policy14 (2): 107—23.
42.
Socialförsäkringslagen (1999: 799). Accessed on 27.06.2006 at: [http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/lag/19990799.HTM].
43.
Statistics Sweden (2004) Svensk statistik årsbok. Stockholm: Statistiska centralbyrån.
44.
Statistics Sweden (2006) Statistik centralbyrån. Accessed on 02.05.2006 at: [ www.scb.se].
45.
Temkina, A. and Rotkirch, A. (2003) ` СoвеTские Γендеpные кoнTpакTы и иx Tpансфopмация в сoвpеменнoй Рoссии' [Soviet gender contracts and their transformation in contemporary Russia], пoд pед. Нoвикoвoй Гендеp. КyльTypа. ОбщесTвo [Gender. Culture. Society]. Riga: Projekt `Zhenshchiny Baltii'.
46.
Therborn, G. (2004) Between Sex and Power. Family in the World, 1990—2000. London: Routledge.
