Krundalen, a valley occupied by three eastern outlet glaciers of the Jostedalsbre ice cap, contains three groups of moraines, two of which are outside the dated neoglacial (`Little Ice Age', LIA) limits. Exposures in the outermost moraine ridge display three sedimentary units. Detailed sedimentological analyses reveal that the lower two units formed during a temporary stillstand of the ice margin inferred to have occurred because of a topographically controlled stabilization of the ice margin during glacier retreat following the Younger Dryas. A climatically controlled readvance during which the upper unit was deposited, partly eroding pre-existing sediments, followed. Continuation of this readvance led to the whole sequence being pushed up to form the present moraine. The sedimentological results including clast shape measurements imply a temperate glacier thermal regime at the time of moraine formation. The glacial palaeoenvironment was characterized by frequent oscillations and an abundant supply of glaciogenic sediment. The age of this landform can at present not be determined by numerical dating. However, the moraine is likely to have been formed in the early Holocene, during Jondal Event 2 (JE) from c. 10 550—10 450 cal. yr BP. The average equilibrium-line altitude lowering calculated for this event is c. 440 m, 340 m for the Erdalen Event 1 (EE, 10 100—10 050 cal. yr BP) moraines and c. 190 m for the LIA moraines farther upvalley. Precipitation calculated for these stages compared with present values is 160—175% (JE), 165—175% (EE) and 110% (LIA). Summer air temperatures were slightly higher than today's during the JE, much higher during the EE and are indistinguishable from present values during the LIA. The existence of a potential JE-equivalent and the extent of the EE are reported and used for glacier reconstruction for the first time in Krundalen. The sedimentological data implies that the JE did not simply consist of a single readvance but was more complex. It is argued that glacial sedimentology linked with methods of glacier reconstruction provides a powerful tool to gain insights into the dynamics and functioning of formerly glaciated areas.
Anda, E.1984: En topografisk-dynamisk modell for de preboreale breframrykk i indre Sogn/Hardanger, Vest-Norge. Meddelanden från Stocholms Universitets Geologiska Institusjonen255, 7.
2.
Andersen, B.G., Lundquist, J. and Saarnisto, M.1995: The Younger Dryas margin of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet — an introduction. Quaternary International28, 145—46.
3.
Bakke, J., Dahl, S.O. and Nesje, A.2005a: Lateglacial and early Holocene palaeoclimatic reconstruction based on glacier fluctuations and equilibrium-line altitudes at northern Folgefonna, Hardanger, western Norway. Journal of Quaternary Science20, 179—98.
4.
Bakke, J., Dahl, S.O., Paasche, O., Reidar, L. and Nesje, A.2005b: Glacier fluctuations, equilibrium-line altitudes and palaeoclimate in Lyngen, northern Norway, during the Lateglacial and Holocene . The Holocene15, 518—40.
5.
Ballantyne, C.K.1989: The Loch Lomond Readvance on the Isle of Skye, Scotland: glacier reconstruction and palaeoclimatic implications. Journal of Quaternary Science4, 95—108.
6.
—— 2002: The Loch Lomond Readvance on the Isle of Mull, Scotland: glacier reconstruction and palaeoclimatic implications. Journal of Quaternary Science17, 759—71.
7.
Benn, D.I.1992: The genesis and significance of `hummocky moraine': evidence from the Isle of Skye, Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews11, 781—99.
8.
—— 1996: Subglacial and subaqueous processes near a glacier grounding line: sedimentological evidence from a former ice-dammed lake, Achnasheen, Scotland. Boreas25, 23—36.
9.
Benn, D.I. and Ballantyne, C.K.1993: The description and representation of particle shape. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms18, 665—72.
10.
—— 1994: Reconstructing the transport history of glacigenic sediments: a new approach based on the co-variance of clast shape indices. Sedimentary Geology91, 215—27.
11.
—— 2005: Palaeoclimatic reconstruction from Loch Lomond Readvance glaciers in the West Drumochter Hills, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science20, 577—92.
12.
Benn, D.I. and Evans, D.J.A.1998: Glaciers and glaciation. Arnold.
13.
Benn, D.I. and Gemmell, A.M.D.1997: Calculating equilibrium-line altitudes of former glaciers by the balance ratio method: a new computer spreadsheet. Glacial Geology and Geomorphology. Retrieved 3 April 2007 from http://ggg.qub.ac.uk/papers/frame.htm
14.
Benn, D.I. and Lukas, S.2006: Younger Dryas glacial landsystems in North West Scotland: an assessment of modern analogues and palaeoclimatic implications. Quaternary Science Reviews25, 2390—408.
15.
Bennett, M.R.2001: The morphology, structural evolution and significance of push moraines. Earth-Science Reviews53, 197—236.
16.
Bennett, M.R. and Boulton, G.S.1993: A reinterpretation of Scottish `hummocky moraine' and its significance for the deglaciation of the Scottish Highlands during the Younger Dryas or Loch Lomond Stadial. Geological Magazine130, 301—18.
17.
Bennett, M.R., Huddart, D., Waller, R.I., Cassidy, N., Tomio, A., Zukowskyj, P., Midgley, N.G., Cook, S.J., Gonzalez, S. and Glasser, N.F.2004: Sedimentary and tectonic architecture of a large push moraine: a case study from Hagafellsjfkull-Eystri, Iceland. Sedimentary Geology172, 269—92.
18.
Bickerton, R.W. and Matthews, J.A.1993: `Little Ice Age' variations of outlet glaciers from the Jostedalsbreen ice-cap, southern Norway: a regional lichenometric-dating study of ice-marginal moraine sequences and their climatic significance. Journal ofQuaternary Science8, 45—66.
19.
Bjune, A.E., Bakke, J., Nesje, A. and Birks, H.J.B.2005: Holocene mean July temperature and winter precipitation in western Norway inferred from palynological and glaciological lake-sediment proxies. The Holocene15, 177—89.
20.
Boulton, G.S.1986: Push-moraines and glacier-contact fans in marine and terrestrial environments. Sedimentology33, 677—98.
21.
Bradwell, T.2004: Annual moraines and summer temperatures at Lambatungnajökull, Iceland. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research36, 502—508.
22.
Brodzikowski, K. and van Loon, A.J.1991: Glacigenic sediments. Elsevier.
23.
Dahl, S.O. and Nesje, A.1996: A new approach to calculating Holocene winter precipitation by combining glacier equilibrium-line altitudes and pine-tree limits: case study from Hardangerjøkulen, central southern Norway. The Holocene6, 381—98.
24.
Dahl, S.O., Nesje, A. and Ovstedal, J.1997: Cirque glaciers as evidence for a thin Younger Dryas ice sheet in east-central southern Norway. Boreas26, 161—80.
25.
Dahl, S.O., Nesje, A., Lie, O., Fjordheim, C. and Matthews, J.A.2002: Timing, equilibrium-line altitudes and climatic implications of two early-Holocene glacier readvances during the Erdalen Event at Jostedalsbreen, western Norway. The Holocene12, 17—25.
26.
Etzelmüller, B., degard, R.S., Vatne, G., Mysterud, R.S., Tonning, T. and Sollid, J.L.2000: Glacier characteristics and sediment transfer system of Longyearbreen and Larsbreen, western Spitsbergen. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift154, 157—68.
27.
Evans, D.J.A. and Benn, D.I. , editors 2004: A practical guide to the study of glacial sediments. Arnold.
28.
Eybergen, F.A.1987: Glacier snout dynamics and contemporary push moraine formation at the Turtmann-glacier, Wallis, Switzerland. In van der Meer, J.J.M., editor, Tills and glaciotectonics . Balkema, 217—31.
29.
Eyles, N., Eyles, C.H. and Miall, A.D.1983: Lithofacies types and vertical profile models. An alternative approach to the description and environmental interpretation of glacial diamict and diamictite sequences. Sedimentology30, 393—410.
30.
Furbish, D.J. and Andrews, J.T.1984: The use of hypsometry to indicate long-term stability and response of valley glaciers to changes in mass transfer. Journal of Glaciology30, 199—211.
31.
Humlum, O.1985: Genesis of an imbricate push moraine, Höfdabrekkujökull, Iceland. Journal of Geology93, 185—95.
32.
—— 2002: Modelling late 20th-century precipitation in Nordenskiöld Land, Svalbard, by geomorphic means. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift56, 96—103.
33.
Kerschner, H., Kaser, G. and Sailer, R.2000: Alpine Younger Dryas glaciers as palaeo-precipitation gauges. Annals of Glaciology31, 80—84.
34.
Kirkbride, M.P. and Spedding, N.1996: The influence of englacial drainage on sediment-transport pathways and till texture of temperate valley glaciers. Annals of Glaciology22, 160—66.
35.
Kjær, K.H. and Krüger, J.2001: The final phase of dead-ice development: processes and sediment architecture, Kötlujökull, Iceland. Sedimentology48, 935—52.
36.
Kjenstad, K. and Sollid, J.L.1982: Isavsmeltingsforløpet i Trondheimsfjorden. Glasialdynamiske prinsipper. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift36, 153—62.
37.
Kneisel, C.1999: Permafrost in Gletschervorfeldern. Eine vergleichende Untersuchung in den Ostschweizer Alpen und Nordschweden. Trierer Geographische Studien22, 1—156.
38.
Krüger, J.1994: Glacial processes, sediments, landforms, and stratigraphy in the terminus region of Myrdalsjökull, Iceland. Folia Geographica Danica21, 1—233.
39.
—— 1995: Origin, chronology and climatological significance of annual-moraine ridges at Myrdalsjökull, Iceland. The Holocene5, 420—27.
40.
—— 1997: Development of minor outwash fans at Kötlujökull, Iceland . Quaternary Science Reviews16, 649—59.
41.
Krüger, J. and Aber, J.S.1999: Formation of supraglacial sediment accumulations on Kotlüjökull, Iceland. Journal of Glaciology45, 400—402.
42.
Krzyszkowski, D.2002: Sedimentary successions in ice-marginal fans of the Late Saalian glaciation, southwestern Poland. Sedimentary Geology149, 93—109.
43.
Krzyszkowski, D. and Zielinski, T.2002: The Pleistocene end moraine fans: controls on their sedimentation and location. Sedimentary Geology149, 73—92.
44.
Lawson, D.E.1981: Distinguishing characteristics of diamictons at the margin of the Matanuska glacier, Alaska. Annals of Glaciology2, 78—84.
45.
—— 1988: Glacigenic resedimentation: classification concepts and application to mass-movement processes and deposits. In Goldthwait, R.P. and Matsch, C.L., editors, Genetic classification of glacigenic deposits . Balkema, 147—69.
46.
Lukas, S.2003: Scottish Landform Example No. 31. The moraines around the Pass of Drumochter. Scottish Geographical Journal119, 383—93.
47.
—— 2005: A test of the englacial thrusting hypothesis of `hummocky' moraine formation — case studies from the north-west Highlands, Scotland . Boreas34, 287—307.
48.
—— 2006: Morphostratigraphic principles in glacier reconstruction — a perspective from the British Younger Dryas. Progress in Physical Geography30, 719—36.
49.
Lukas, S. and Benn, D.I.2006: Retreat dynamics of Younger Dryas glaciers in the far NW Scottish Highlands reconstructed from moraine sequences. Scottish Geographical Journal122, 308—25.
50.
Lukas, S. and Lukas, T.2006: A glacial geological and geomorphological map of the far NW Highlands, Scotland. Part 1. Journal of Maps2006, 43—55.
51.
Lukas, S., Nicholson, L.I., Ross, F.H. and Humlum, O.2005: Formation, meltout processes and landscape alteration of high-arctic ice-cored moraines — examples from Nordenskiöld Land, central Spitsbergen. Polar Geography29, 157—87.
52.
Lyså, A. and Lønne, I.2001: Moraine development at a small High-Arctic valley glacier: Rieperbreen, Svalbard. Journal of Quaternary Science16, 519—29.
53.
Matthews, J.A.1991: The late Neoglacial (`Little Ice Age') glacier maximum in southern Norway: new 14C-dating evidence and climatic implications. The Holocene1, 219—33.
54.
McDougall, D.A.2001: The geomorphological impact of Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stadial plateau icefields in the central Lake District, northwest England. Journal ofQuaternary Science16, 531—44.
55.
Nemec, W., Lønne, I. and Blikra, L.H.1999: The Kregnes moraine in Gauldalen, west-central Norway: anatomy of a Younger Dryas proglacial delta in a palaeofjord basin. Boreas28, 454—76.
56.
Nesje, A.1992: Topographical effects on the equilibrium line altitude on glaciers. Geojournal27, 383—91.
57.
Nesje, A. and Dahl, S.O.2000: Glaciers and environmental change. Arnold.
58.
—— 2003: The `Little Ice Age' — only temperature? The Holocene13, 139—45.
59.
Nesje, A., Kvamme, M., Rye, N. and Løvlie, R.1991: Holocene glacial and climate history of the Jostedalsbreen region, western Norway; evidence from lake sediments and terrestrial deposits . Quaternary Science Reviews10, 87—114.
60.
Nesje, A., Matthews, J.A., Dahl, S.O., Berrisford, M.S. and Andersson, C.2001: Holocene glacier fluctuations of Flatebreen and winter-precipitation changes in the Jostedalsbreen region, western Norway, based on glaciolacustrine sediment records. The Holocene11, 267—80.
61.
Ohmura, A., Kasser, P. and Funk, M.1992: Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers. Journal of Glaciology38, 397—411.
62.
Osmaston, H.A.2005: Estimates of glacier equilibrium line altitudes by the Area × Altitude, the Area × Altitude Balance Ratio and the Area × Altitude Balance Index methods and their validation. Quaternary International138—139, 22—31.
63.
—— 2006: Should Quaternary sea-level changes be used to correct glacier ELAs, vegetation belt altitudes and sea level temperatures for inferring climate changes? Quaternary Research65, 244—51.
64.
strem, G., Dale Selvig, K. and Tandberg, K.1988: Atlas over breer i Sør-Norge. NVE Hydrologisk Avdeling, Meddelse61, 1—247.
65.
Rye, N., Nesje, A., Lien, R. and Anda, E.1987: The Late Weichselian ice sheet in the Nordfjord-Sunnmøre area and deglaciation chronology for Nordfjord, western Norway. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift41, 23—43.
66.
Rye, N., Nesje, A., Lien, R., Blikra, L.H., Eikenæs, O., Hole, P.A. and Torsnes, I.1997: Glacial geology and deglaciation chronology of the area between inner Nordfjord and Jostedalsbreen — Strynefjellet, western Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift77, 51—63.
67.
Sharp, M.1984: Annual moraine ridges at Skàlafellsjökull, southeast Iceland . Journal of Glaciology30, 82—93.
68.
Sletten, K., Lyså, A. and Lønne, I.2001: Formation and disintegration of a high-arctic ice-cored moraine complex, Scott Turnerbreen, Svalbard. Boreas30, 272—84.
69.
Sollid, J.L. and Reite, A.J.1983: The last glaciation and deglaciation of central Norway . In Ehlers, J., editor, Glacial deposits in North-west Europe. Balkema, 41—59.
70.
Sønstegaard, E. and Aa, A.R.1987: Jostedalen 1418 III, kvart'rgeologisk kart — M 1:50000 . Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse.
71.
Sutherland, D.G.1984: Modern glacier characteristics as a basis for inferring former climates with particular reference to the Loch Lomond Stadial. Quaternary Science Reviews3, 291—309.
72.
Svendsen, J.I. and Mangerud, J.1987: Late Weichselian and Holocene sea-level history for a cross-section of western Norway. Journal of Quaternary Science2, 113—32.
73.
Swift, D.A., Evans, D.J.A. and Fallick, A.E.2006: Transverse englacial debris-rich ice bands at Kviarjökull, southeast Iceland. Quaternary Science Reviews25, 1708—18.
74.
Torsnes, I., Rye, N. and Nesje, A.1993: Modern and Little Ice Age equilibrium-line altitudes on outlet valley glaciers from Jostedalsbreen, western Norway: an evaluation of different approaches to their calculation. Arctic and Alpine Research25, 106—16.
75.
van der Meer, J.J.M., Kjær, K.H. and Krüger, J.1999: Subglacial water-escape structures and till structures, Sléttjökull, Iceland. Journal of Quaternary Science14, 191—205.
76.
van der Wateren, F.M.1995: Structural geology and sedimentology of push moraines — processes of soft sediment deformation in a glacial environment and the distribution of glaciotectonic styles. Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst54, 1—168.
Velle, G., Brooks, S.J., Birks, H.J.B. and Willassen, E.2005: Chironomids as a tool for inferring Holocene climate: an assessment based on six sites in southern Scandinavia. Quaternary Science Reviews24, 1429—62.
79.
Winkler, S.1996: Frührezente und rezente Gletscherstandsschwankungen in Ostalpen und West-/Zentralnorwegen. Ein regionaler Vergleich von Chronologie, Ursachen und glazialmorphologischen Auswirkungen. Trierer Geographische Studien15, 1—579.
80.
Winkler, S. and Nesje, A.1999: Moraine formation at an advancing temperate glacier: Brigsdalsbreen, western Norway. Geografiska Annaler81A, 17—30.
81.
Winkler, S., Haakensen, N., Nesje, A. and Rye, N.1997: Glaziale Dynamik in Westnorwegen — Ablauf und Ursachen des aktuellen Gletschervorstoßes am Jostedalsbreen. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen141, 43—63.
82.
Zielinski, T. and van Loon, A.J.2000: Subaerial terminoglacial fans III: overview of sedimentary characteristics and depositional model. Geologie en Mijnbouw79, 93—107.
