1 Available information describing the behavioural changes induced by anticholinesterases in humans and animals is reviewed.
2 Very little confidence can be placed in existing descriptions of the behavioural effects of anticholinesterases in humans.
3 Although data from animal experimental studies is reliable, the information obtained is relatively superficial.
4 It is concluded therefore, although much information is available, surprisingly little is known of the behavioural changes induced by anticholinesterases.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Jeyaratnam J.Acute pesticide poisoning; A major global health problem. World Health Statistics Quarterly1990; 43: 139-44.
2.
Goulding R.Accidental pesticide poisoning; the toll is high. World Health Farm1988; 9: 526-30.
3.
Ozturk MA, Kelestimur F., Kurtoglu S., Guven K. & Arslan D.Anticholinesterase poisoning in Turkey- Clinical, laboratory and radiological evaluation of 269 cases. Human and Experimental Toxicology1990; 9: 273-9.
4.
Dunn MA & Sidell FRProgress in medical defense against nerve agents. Journal American Medical Association1989; 262: 649-52.
5.
Gall D.The use of therapeutic mixtures in the treatment of cholinesterase inhibition . Fundamental and Applied Toxicology1981; 1: 214-16.
6.
Health and Safety Executive.Biological Monitoring of Workers Exposed to Organophosphorus Pesticides, (Guidance Note MS 17)London: Health and Safety Executive, 1980.
7.
Koller WC & Klawans HLOrganophosphorus intoxication. In: Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol 37 - Intoxications of the Nervous System, Part II, Vinken PJ ed, pp. 541-62. The Netherlands: Elsevier, North-Holland, 1979.
8.
Hirschberg A. & Lerman Y.Clinical problems in organophosphate insecticide poisoning: The use of a computerised information service. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology1984; 4: S209-14.
9.
Sidell FRSoman and Sarin; clinical manifestations and treatment of accidental poisoning by organophosphates. ClinicalToxicology1974 ; 7: 1-17.
10.
Grandjean P. , Sandoe SH & Kimbrough RDNon-specificity of clinical signs and symptoms caused by environmental chemicals. Human and Experimental Toxicology1991; 10: 167-73.
11.
Davies JENeurotoxic concerns of human pesticide exposures. American Journal of Industrial Medicine1990; 18: 327-31.
12.
D'Mello GDNeurobehavioural toxicology of anticholinesterases. In: Basic and Clinical Toxicology of Organophosphates and Carbamates, Ballantyne N & Marrs TC eds, pp. 61-74. London: Butterworth , 1992.
13.
Lotti M.Central neurotoxicity and behavioural effects of anticholinesterases. In: Basic and Clinical Toxicology of Organophosphates and Carbamates , Ballantyne B & Marrs TC eds, pp. 75-83. London: Butterworth, 1992.
14.
Bowers MB Jr, Goodman E. & Sim VMSome behavioural changes in man following anticholinesterase administration. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases1964; 138: 383-9.
15.
Dubois KPToxicological evaluation of the anticholinesterase agents. In: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Cholinesterases and Anticholinesterases. Koelle GB ed, pp. 833-59. Berlin: Springer-Verlag , 1963.
16.
Grob D.Anticholinesterase intoxication in man and its treatment. In: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Cholinesterases and Anticholinesterases . Koelle GB, ed. pp. 989-1027. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1963.
17.
Joubert J. & Joubert PHChorea and psychiatric changes in organophosphate poisoning. South African Medical Journal1988; 74: 32-4.
18.
Rosenstock L., Daniell W., Barnhart S., Schwartz D. & Demers PAChronic neuropsychological sequelae of occupation exposure to organosphosphate insecticides. American Journal of Industrial Medicine1990; 18: 321-5.
19.
Clark G.Organophosphate insecticides and behaviour, a review. Aerospace Medicine1971; July: 735-40.
20.
Doull J.Assessing pesticide toxicity in man and correlations with laboratory animal studies. In: Pesticide Chemistry ; Human Welfare and the Environment , Miyamoto J & Kearney PC, eds, pp. 433-6. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.
21.
Gershon S. & Shaw FHPsychiatric sequelae of chronic exposure to organophosphorus insecticides . The Lancet1961; i: 1371-4.
22.
Namba T., Nolte CT, Jackrel J. & Grob D.Poisoning due to organophosphorus insecticides. American Journal of Medicine1971; 50: 475-92.
23.
Stalberg E. , Jilton-Brown P., Kolmodin-Hedman B., Holmstedt B. & Augustinsson K-B.Effect of occupational exposure to organophosphorus insecticides on neuromuscular function. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health1978; 4: 255-61.
24.
Frawley JP, Fugat HN, Hagan EC, Blake JR & Fitzhugh OGMarked potentiation in mammalian toxicity from simultaneous administration of two anticholinesterase compounds. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics1957; 121: 96: 106.
25.
Murphy SD, Costa LG & Schwab BWPesticide interactions and development of tolerance. In: Effects of Chronic Exposures to Pesticides on Animal Systems, Chambers JE & Yarbrough JD eds, pp. 227-42. New York: Raven Press, 1982.
26.
Hanna WJ & Choo-Kang E.Malathion poisoning: A report of two cases. World Industrial Medical Journal1983; 32: 109-11.
27.
Halle A. & Sloas DDPercutaneous organophosphate poisoning. Southern Medical Journal1987; 80: 1179-81.
28.
Joubert J., Joubert PH, Melt Van Der Spury DM & Van Gram E. Acute organophosphate poisoning presenting with choreo-athetosis. ClinicalToxicology1984; 22: 187-91.
29.
Barnes JMPsychiatric sequelae of chronic exposure to organophosphorus insecticides . The Lancet1961; 102-3.
30.
Durham WF, Wolfe HR, Quinby GE & Wash W.Organophosphorus insecticides and mental alertness. Archives of Environmental Health1965; 10: 55-66.
31.
Levin JS, Rodnitzky RL & Mick DLAnxiety associated with exposure to organophosphate compounds. Archives ofGeneral Psychiatry1976; 33: 225-8.
32.
Revzin AMNeurophysiological and behaviour assessment of pesticide toxicity. In: Pesticide Chemistry ; Human Welfare and the Environment. Myamoto J & Kearney PC eds, pp. 419-24. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.
33.
Sidell FR & Groff WAThe reactivatability of cholinesterase inhibited by VX and sarin in man. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology1974; 27: 241-52.
34.
Anger WK, Moody L., Burg J. et al. Neurobehavioural evaluation of soil and structural fumigators using methyl bromide and sulfuryl fluoride. Neurotoxicology1986; 7: 137-56.
35.
Savage EP, Keefe TJ, Mounce LM et al. Chronic neurological sequelae of acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning. Archives of Environmental Health1988; 43: 38-45.
36.
Davies JENeurotoxic concerns of human pesticide exposures. American Journal of Industrial Medicine1990; 18: 327-31.
37.
Finney DJThe detection of adverse reactions to therapeutic drugs. Statistics in Medicine1982; 1: 153-61.
38.
Venning GRThe validity of anecdotal reports of suspected adverse reactions - the problem of false alarms. British Medical Journal1982 ; 286: 249-52.
39.
Grifin JP & Weber Jcp.Voluntary systems of adverse reaction reporting - Part III. Adverse Drug Reactions, Acute Poisoning Review1989; 8: 203-15.
40.
Zbinden G.Definition of adverse behavioural effects. In: Application of Behavioural Pharmacology in Toxicology, Zbinden G, Cuomo V, Racagni G & Weiss, pp. 1-14. New York: Raven Press , 1983.
41.
Taylor P.Anticholinesterase agents. In: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 6th ed, Gilman AG, Goodman LS & Gilman A eds, pp. 100-119. New York: Macmillan, 1980.
42.
Who.Organophosphorus insecticides: A general introduction. (Environmental Health Criteria 63)Geneva, International Programme on Chemical Safety , 1986.
43.
Haggerty GT , Kurtz PJ & Armstrong RDDuration and intensity of behavioural change after sublethal exposure to soman in rats. Neurobehavioural Toxicology and Teratology1986; 8: 695-702.
44.
Koehn GL & Karczmar AGEffect of diisopropyl phosphofluoridate on analgesia and motor behaviour in the rat. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology1978; 2: 169-77.
45.
Romano JA, King JM & Penetar DMA comparison of physotigmine and soman using taste aversion and nociception . Neurobehavioural Toxicology and Teratology1985; 7: 243-9.
46.
Aigner TG & Mishkin M.The effects of physostigmine and scopolamine on recognition memory in monkeys. Behavioural Neurology andBiology1986; 45: 81-7.
47.
Cox T. & Tye N.Effects of physostigmine on the acquisition of a position discrimination in rats. Neuropharmacology1973; 12: 277-84.
48.
Heise GA & Hudson JDEffects of pesticides and drugs on working memory in rats; Continuous non-match . Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour1985; 23: 599-605.
49.
Howard JL & Pollard GTEffects of d-amphetaine, Org 2766, scopolamine and physostigmine on repeated acquisition of four-response chains in rats. Drug Development Research1983; 3: 37-48.
50.
Brufani M., Castellano C., Marta M. et al. A long-lasting cholinesterase inhibitor affecting neural and behavioural processes. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour1987; 26: 625-9.
51.
Reiter L., Talens G. & Wooley D.Acute and subacute parathion treatment: Effects on cholinesterase activities and learning in mice. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology1973; 25: 582-8.
52.
Landauer MR & Romano JAAcute behavioural toxicity of the organophosphate sarin in rats. Neurobehavioural Toxicology and Teratology1984; 6: 329-43.
53.
Raffaele K. , Hughey D., Wenk D. et al. Long-term behavioural changes in rats following organophosphorus exposure. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour1987; 27: 407-12.
54.
D'Mello GD & Duffy Eam.the acute toxicity of sarin in marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): A behavioural analysis. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology1985; 5: S169-74.
55.
Wolthius OL & Vanwersch Rap.Behavioural changes in the rat after low doses of cholinesterase inhibitors. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology1984; 4: S195-208.
56.
Cox T. & Tye N.Effects of physostigmine on the maintenance of discrimination behaviour in rats. Neuropharmacology1974; 13: 205-10.
57.
Geller I., Hartman RJ, Moran E. et al. Acute soman effects in the juvenile baboon: Effect on a match-to-sample discrimination task and on total blood acetylcholinesterase. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour1985; 22: 961-6.
58.
Anger WK & Wilson SMEffects on carbaryl on variable interval response rates in rats. NeurobehaviouralToxicology1980; 2: 21-4.
59.
Brezenof HE , McGee J. & Hymowitz N.Effect on soman on schedule-controlled behaviour and brain acetylcholinesterase in rats. Life Science1985; 37: 2421-30.
60.
Hymowitz N. , Brezenoff HE, McGee J., Campbell K. & Knight V.Effect of repeated intraperitoneal injections of soman on schedule-controlled behaviour in the rat. Psychopharmacology1985; 86: 404-8.
61.
Gause EM, Hartman RJ, Leal BZ & Geller L.Neurobehavioural effects of repeated sublethal soman in primates. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour1985; 23: 1003-12.
62.
Robinson SECholinergic pathways in the brain. In: Central Cholinergic Systems and Adaptive Dysfunctions, Singh MM , Warburton DM & Lal H eds, pp. 37-61. New York: Plenum Press, 1985.
63.
Fibiger HC & Vincent SRAnatomy of central cholinergic neurons. In: Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, Melzer HY ed, pp. 211-218. New York: Raven Press, 1987.