An assessment of information literacy skills among first-year postgraduate students at Sokoine University of Agriculture Tanzania

Abstract

This study was set to examine and identify some aspects of information literacy skills among postgraduate students at Sokoine University of Agriculture and determine challenges and problems facing them in terms of searching and use of various information resources. Systematic probability sampling and questionnaires were used to collect data from175 students out of 314 first-year postgraduate students registered. The findings showed that although information literacy exists among students, a good number of students demonstrated significant deficiency in their information literacy knowledge and skills in key aspects including searching for information from electronic sources, application of various information search techniques such as Boolean operators, use of truncation, synonyms and concept maps. Based on the findings, the paper recommends addressing the shortcomings found by introducing a mandatory information literacy course for both postgraduate and undergraduate students to ensure effective independent learning among students.

Keywords

Higher education information evaluation information literacy information search postgraduate students Tanzania

Introduction

Since 1989 when the American Library Association (ALA) defined information literacy (IL) as: “a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information” (ALA, 1989: 3), IL has become a familiar term among scholars used regularly in literature and in discussion all over the world. Besides the ALA definition, other substitute definitions exist from professional organizations, educational institutions and individuals that attempt to encompass the original ideas from the ALA. For example, according to UNESCO, IL encompasses knowledge of one’s information concerns and needs, and the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, organize and effectively create, use and communicate information to address issues or problems at hand; it is a prerequisite for participating effectively in the information society, and is part of the basic human right of lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2003). Similarly, the UK Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) define IL as “knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner” (CILIP, 2004).

Today, educators and information professionals recognize IL as an important vehicle for developing and enhancing lifelong learning as well as creating dynamic functioning members of society. IL skills are identified as important skills in information-seeking activities. Similarly, IL is recognized as a development enabler and sine qua non condition for acquiring sustainable skills in learning (Wims and Lawler, 2007). According to Bruce (2004), IL is the foundation for learning in the contemporary environment that is characterized by continuing technological changes linked to information practices, critical thinking and fundamental for the quest of lifelong learning, personal empowerment and economic achievement. IL augments students’ competency with evaluating, managing and using information, considered a key learning outcome (Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), 2000)

It is for these reasons that several frameworks and models of IL have been developed in different countries by individual institutions or national organs in order to provide the principles, standards and practice to guide and support IL education in all education sectors. Some of these models and frameworks include: the SCONUL (1999) Seven Pillars of Information Literacy, CILIP IL Model, A New Curriculum for IL (ANCIL), National Information Literacy Framework, Seven Faces of Information Literacy, ACRL Framework for IL, The Big6 Skills Model, the Australian and New Zealand IL Framework.

The need for students across various education levels to have basic IL skills that correspond to their education levels is also a trend that is increasingly being adapted across disciplines and education institutions including universities. Various universities have developed and conducted IL programmes for their students and staff. It is from this point of view that Rockman and Associates (2004) assert that IL is no longer a library issue, but rather a critical, campus-wide issue, a learning issue and an education issue. Despite IL being a core issue for higher learning students, some students, both undergraduate and postgraduate, face a number of challenges in terms of information searching from online databases, use of the Internet and other information sources. Lack and low levels of requisite IL skills and a lack of awareness and familiarity with information resources are among the factors that affect and impede effective accessibility and use of information resources in various contexts (Igbo and Imo, 2010). Consequently, a low level of IL becomes a barrier to the efficient utilization of ICT, which is very critical in the electronic information world (Tilvawala et al. (2009) and Bingimlas (2009).

In this information technology age, it is very important for Tanzanian graduates to develop the skills required for independent information searching, evaluating and utilizing all available sources of information. IL programmes can inculcate good principles in the fundamental skills of information use in the knowledge society.

Objectives of the study

The main objective of the study was to assess the level of IL skills among first-year postgraduate students at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA).

Specifically the study had the following two objectives:

to identify IL skills possessed;

to determine the challenges and problems facing them in terms of searching and use of various information resources.

Literature review

In the contemporary world, it is now widely acknowledged that IL skills play an important role in academic achievement and lifelong learning. It is thus conceived that lack or insufficiency of information skills creates a negative impact in terms of academic, personal and professional advancements among students, professionals and ordinary people. In terms of academic achievement, students and researchers become negatively affected because a lack of IL skills limits them and creates difficulty for effective and efficient ways in searching, retrieving and using relevant information. The ability to search for information by applying appropriate evaluating and analysing skills is very important (ACRL, 2000).

A number of studies have shown that information users including university students in both developed and developing countries commence university with limited information-seeking skills. In their review of entry-level students’ research skills, Guise et al. (2007) observed that students were unprepared to meet the needs of first-year research requirements, while Russell (2009) identifies significant gaps in information competencies that students demonstrate during high school to university transition. It is from this perspective that Gabridge et a. (2008) observe that even good students in prestigious institutes such as MIT in the US lack sufficient information and research skills for the efficient use of resources offered in their institutions. According to Rowlands (2008), students lack an understanding of what constitutes quality scholarly information; they are unable to evaluate the information retrieved, also they are not able to apply sophisticated information-searching strategies to a range of interfaces, favouring instead intuitive process like Google simply because of its assumed simplicity. In general, as pointed out by Ellis and Salisbury (2004), a majority of students face a number of challenges in the process of information search, retrieval and its use.

Among the challenges facing students in their information use are language barriers, computer use skills and general experience in library use (Curry and Copeman, 2005; Li et al. 2007; Pincas, 2001; Song, 2004). For instance, Li et al. (2007) point out that language problems not only make them fearful in terms of communicating but make them endure other inconveniences in their academic studies including the use of library services. Likewise, Baro (2009) in his study of reference and information services in Nigerian libraries identified information illiteracy among library users as a factor hindering the effective utilization of reference services in the library. Bennett and Maton (2010), Kennedy et al. (2009) and Hughes and Bruce (2006) are all of the opinion that differences in learning, information use and digital competency among students is the result of differences in students’ social, cultural and linguistic experience.

IL skills among students in Africa

While the lack of IL skills among students is a worldwide problem, in Africa this problem seems to be more critical because of the environment surrounding its education system, access to technology, socio-economic status and socio-learning divide. For example, most students in Nigerian universities have been found to lack the sophisticated skills that are needed to exploit the university libraries’ information resources both in print and online (Baro and Fyneman, 2009). In the same vein, Kavulya (2003) observed that many students in Kenya enter higher education with very limited skills which prevents them accessing information and exploiting the library’s research potential. Similarly, in a study carried out in Zanzibar, Abbas et al. (2014) found that many university students were lacking even basic library skills. A study by Kimani (2014) of IL skills among incoming first-year undergraduate students at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa in Kenya found that, while students possessed computer skills with applications such as word-processing (Microsoft Office and Microsoft Word) and statistical applications such as SPSS, and could use the Internet and its applications (e.g. social networking sites and the World Wide Web), a significant number had limited knowledge of strategies used to search for information and were not familiar with the various retrieval tools and their applications. The study further revealed that while students were familiar with both electronic and printed information resources, a considerable number of those students were not aware of what constitutes primary resources and secondary sources.

Information searching and retrieval is a challenging task for university students in Africa because their ability to do so is hampered by lack of skills in various aspects including identifying concepts, reading citations, a lack of knowledge of the structure and contents of library catalogues and of controlled vocabulary, and deficient search strategies (Tella, 2009). Thus, according to Rebousssin (2011), training in library research methods is needed to improve library research skills at every level and such training should be offered in as many different formats, locations and settings as possible. It is from that point of view that Rebousssin (2011) recommends that students in Africa should be educated in IL or library research methods in order to make them capable of taking the helm of the multifaceted information environment of the 21st century. In recognition of this gap, a number of institutions in Africa have taken some measures to address this situation. For example, in Kenya a communication skills course for undergraduate students, regardless of their subject specialization, was introduced in order to assist new university students become familiar with the necessary skills associated with university academic work. In this course, students are taught a variety of skills including library, reading, as well as writing skills (Kavulya, 2003). In Nigeria, according to Noah (2004), a directive by the supervisory organ for universities, the National University Commission (NUC) means it is mandatory for all universities in Nigeria to include a library literacy course in their curriculum.

Many authors through the literature recommend the integration of IL into the mainstream curriculum as the best practice for teaching and imparting IL skills in an effective way. Despite this excellent recommendation, in many countries in Africa, as in other developing countries, this recommendation has not been taken seriously as an intervention measure (Somi and Jager, 2005). According to Baro and Keboh (2012) and Baro (2011) only a few library schools are able to offer an IL stand-alone course in the curriculum. In the same vein, Lwoga (2012) asserts that in Tanzania, IL knowledge is still weak, as very few public universities have integrated it into their curricula. Similarly, Noah (2004) observes that only a few universities in Nigeria have seriously taken measures to offer IL as a credit-earning course.

Methodology

This study was conducted at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Tanzania. SUA is an agricultural university offering 30 undergraduate and 45 postgraduate degree programmes. It also offers non-degree programmes including Certificates and Diplomas. The University has approximately 7228 students of which 1553 are postgraduates, 5475 are undergraduates, 152 are diploma and 48 are certificate students. The study population was first-year postgraduate students. Systematic probability sampling was used to sample a total of 175 students from 314 first-year postgraduate students across four faculties and one university directorate offering postgraduate programmes, namely the Faculty of Agriculture (FoA), Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation (FoF & NC), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM) and the Development Studies Institute (DSI). This sample was considered as an ideal number for approximating the t-distribution as maintained by Kothari (2009). Table 1 shows the details for respondents’ faculty affiliation.

Table 1.

Faculty affiliation of respondents (N=145).

Faculty	No. of respondents	Percentage (%)
FoA	75	51.7
FoFNC	19	13.1
FoVM	32	22.1
FoS	5	3.4
DSI	14	9.4
Total	145	100

In terms of study programmes of the 145 respondents, eight (5.5%), 126 (86.9%) and 11 (7.6%) were PhD, MSc and MA students respectively. In terms of gender, 103 (71%) were males while 42 (29%) were females.

Data collection and analysis

Open- and closed-ended questions were used to collect data. The collected data was analysed by the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

Findings and discussion

As already noted, the purpose of this study was to explore and report on the strength and weakness of postgraduate students’ IL skills, focusing in particular on their understanding, knowledge and skill in information-searching techniques as well as their awareness and use of various information resources.

This study used three main questions as a means for achieving its purpose:

What were the IL skills possessed by the res-pondents?

What were the challenges facing respondents when searching for information?

What were IL priority areas in which students would like to be trained?

However, before determining the specific IL skills possessed by students and the challenges confronting them, it was felt important to explore students’ prior background in relation to training in IL and information use in general that in one way or another could influence their IL skills. Prior knowledge and experience is an important element for learners for adapting and maintaining new skills. Some problems experienced by students in understanding and grasping new knowledge emanates from inadequate previous experience. According to Ellis and Salisbury (2004), some students commence university with limited IL skills; as such they cannot comprehend some important aspects including identifying, assessing, retrieving, evaluating, organizing and communicating information in various contexts and in general library usage.

For university librarians, an understanding of prior knowledge among students is very important because in building on what students already know, they are better able to plan how to assist their respective students. Therefore, in order to find out respondents’ prior IL background, respondents were required to provide some information about any prior training they had received in IL and information resources usage.

Training in IL

Students were required to explain whether they had received any form of training intended to equip them with IL skills (effective library and other information resources use including searching for information from various information sources). The findings showed that 78 (53%) claimed to have acquired some kind of training during their undergraduate studies while 67 (46.2%) students had not acquired any form of IL training. Respondents were further required to indicate the forms of IL training they received. It was found that 42 (29%) of the respondents mentioned library orientation, 10 (6.9%) said they attended one-shot instructional sessions organized as part of a lecture presentation while 26 (17.9%) received training as part of a special course within the academic timetable. From those findings, it was clear that a substantial number of the respondents embarked upon their postgraduate studies with an IL gap as shown by the 67 (46.2) who did not receive any form of IL training. In addition, it was also apparent that orientation sessions and IL training conducted as one-off instructional sessions, as indicated by 42 (29%) and 10 (6.9%) respondents respectively, were not adequate to impart meaningful skills.

Familiarity with the library use

By the nature of their education level, postgraduate students are considered and expected to be conversant with services offered by the university library, its collection arrangements and aware of various information resources available for them. It is against this platform that efficient and effective use of the library and its resources can be achieved. Therefore, respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they were familiar with their university library and its resources. For example, respondents were asked to state how books in their university library were arranged. It was found that majority of the respondents 60 (41.4%) stated that books in the library are arranged by subject, followed by those who said that books are arranged by title 35 (24.1%), while 32 (22.1%) said books are arranged by author names and 18 (12.4%) did not know the kind of arrangement used. The fact that some students indicated that books in the university library were arranged by author names and titles contrary to the Library of Congress Classification Scheme, which is used in their library, gives a clear indicative sign that a substantial number of students are not aware of some important issues surrounding their educational and academic environment.

In terms of library collection usage, respondents were required to indicate where they mostly spent their time when searching for academic information. As shown in Table 2, the findings indicated that 84 (57.9%) of students mostly used the services of special collections, followed by those using the computer lab 32 (22.1%), those using general book collection numbered 20 (13.8%), while 9 (6.2%) used periodicals. The high rate for special collection usage corresponds to the expectations of postgraduate students. Special collections were heavily used by researchers and postgraduate students because they contain information resources including books, reports, theses and dissertations, agricultural research reports, government and other official publications from government organizations, universities and non-governmental organizations that hold much relevance for various research needs. On the other hand, the low percentage for usage of general book collection and periodicals is explainable by the fact that resources in those two collections are not current due to lack of adequate funding.

Table 2.

Preference for library section/collection usage for academic information (N = 145).

Library section	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Special collection	84	57.9
Computer lab	32	22.1
General book collection	20	13.8
Periodicals	9	6.2
Total	145	100

IL skills possessed by the respondents

Use of information resources

The availability of various information resources becomes meaningful only when the intended users are able to exploit them effectively and efficiently. In this regard, students are expected to be conversant with and knowledgeable about information-searching strategies. Therefore, the study attempted to explore to what extent respondents were knowledgeable and skillful in terms of the searching, retrieving and evaluation of information using different information tools and sources. Respondents were thus asked to rate themselves in relation to the five aspects shown in Table 3. The results show clearly that the majority of the respondents indicated weaknesses in major areas connected to information searching and use.

Table 3.

Skills in using information resources (N=145).

	None	Low	Moderate	High
Searching for information from OPAC	48 (33.1%)	53 (36.5%)	41 (28.2%)	3 (2.0%)
Searching and retrieving academic information from the internet	(0%)	17 (11.7 %)	34 (23.4%)	94 (64.8%)
Using CD-ROMs	35 (24.1%)	34 (23.4%)	62 (42.7%)	14 (9.6%)
Using online database	15 (10.3%)	42 (28.9%)	75 (51.7%)	13 (8.9%)
Evaluating information from the Internet	6 (4.1%)	29 (20%)	87 (60%)	23 (15.8%)

Criteria considered important for determining the credibility of information

As can be observed from Table 3, the majority of the respondents − 94 (64.8%) and 34 (23.4%) – rated themselves having high and moderate skills in using and searching and retrieving academic information from the Internet. In order to verify the accuracy of their responses, respondents were required to mention what they considered as important criteria for determining the credibility of information from the Internet. The findings revealed that 43 (29.7%) of the respondents were aware of criteria for determining the credibility and reliability of information by mentioning five aspects; currency, relevance, authority, accuracy and purpose. Other respondents 37 (25.5%) mentioned only two aspects authority and accuracy while 33 (22.7%) did not know any criteria. However, 32 (22.1%) of respondents noted irrelevant criteria like Internet speed and web headings. These findings showed that while 65 (48.2%) use the Internet, its use is not supported by the application of required knowledge and skills but they probably use it because of its convenience.

Techniques for searching information

In order to search and retrieve appropriate information in the best and most efficient manner, an information user must be familiar with both electronic and printed information resources. In addition, a familiarity with retrieval tools and their applications and ability to apply suitable search techniques are also important. For example, strategies and techniques that can be used for searching and improving the quality of the retrieved information include the use of keywords, use of Boolean operators, truncation, synonyms, phrases and the formulation of concept maps. As shown in Table 4, the study found out that a majority of the respondents was not familiar with using many of the search techniques.

Table 4.

Information-searching techniques (N = 145).

Technique	Familiar	Not familiar
Boolean operators	66 (45.5%)	79 (54.5%)
Using truncation	60 (41.5%)	85 (58%)
Using synonyms	92 (63.4%)	53 (36.6%)
Using concept map	38 (26.2%)	107 (73.8%)
Using phrase searching	102 (70.3%)	43 (29.7%) Change

Challenges in accessing information from various sources

The contemporary environment of rapid technological change and proliferating information resources have created challenges for information retrieval. In this study, respondents were asked to indicate the information sources with which they experienced problems in terms of information search. The findings showed that searching for information from online databases was ranked by 49 (33.8%) respondents, followed by 44 (30.4%) for internet searching while 28 (19.3%) mentioned searching information from CD-ROMs as a problem. Also, 15 (10.3%) of the students were of the opinion that searching for information from the OPAC was complicated, whereas locating and retrieving books from shelves was noted as problematic by 9 (6.2%) respondents.

It may be true that some of the challenges mentioned in information retrieval such as retrieving books from shelves emanates from problems associated with library routine duties, such as the mis-shelving of books. However, in general terms the findings shows that there is lack of adequate skills for searching for information from electronic sources. This observation is supported by the findings shown in Table 2, indicating that only 32 (22.1%) of the respondents preferred using the computer lab as their main source for academic information.

Training priority areas

In this study, respondents were also requested to indicate areas which they considered their training priority. In this regard, 43 (29.7%) of the students indicated information search technique as their first priority area, followed by evaluating Internet information by 25 (17.2%) respondents, searching and retrieving academic information from an online database with 20 (13.8%) came third while priority four with 18 (12.4%) was using the OPAC. Other priority areas with their number of respondents were: using the Internet for information search by 16 (11%); using key word and formulating a search strategy by 16 (10.3%); and using CD-ROM by 8 (5.5%). These findings indicate that most of the respondents indicated training needs in key areas required for effective information use that need to be supported with adequate information search and evaluation techniques. The fact that a large volume of information is provided and accessed electronically both from the Internet and electronic databases is an important factor that should be taken seriously to ensure that students are provided with all appropriate IL skills in order to support their learning and the academic environment in general.

Conclusion and recommendation

It is true that the scope of IL is broad and complex. IL encompasses information and digital skills that can enhance the access of information from traditional learning resources with the use of new digital technologies. The findings of this study have provided evidence indicating that a great number of postgraduate students do not possess IL skills that are proportionate with their educational level. Their skills are not adequate to effectively support independent research work and for information usage in general. The inadequacy of IL skills among the respondents was shown by respondents’ weaknesses in key IL aspects such as searching for information from electronic sources, application of various information search techniques such as Boolean operator, use of truncation, synonyms and concept maps. Similarly, their responses for areas where they need training clearly indicate the gaps they feel they have in terms of their IL skills.

It is important to note that creating and developing information literate and lifelong learners in higher education institutions, specifically for postgraduate students, is very crucial. This is not only because they are expected to have appropriate intellectual abilities and critical thinking skills to enable them conduct research as a requirement for their degree programmes, but also it is needed for their general education, working career and lifelong learning as agricultural and extension officers, teachers, policy makers, etc. It is indeed important that measures are taken in order to eliminate this predicament among postgraduate students at SUA. One of the decisive measures could be teaching IL as a mandatory course. Currently, the teaching of IL at SUA is undertaken on an ad hoc basis for both undergraduate and postgraduate students. For instance, for postgraduate students IL is taught through a gentleman’s agreement between instructors and some librarians, while for undergraduate students some faculties have a Information and Communication management for Agricultural Professionals (CIT 300) course in their curriculum, taught as an elective course. This scenario does not offer equal opportunity for all students to benefit from IL sessions. As a measure to address that problem it a recommendation of this study that SUA should introduce a mandatory IL course for postgraduate students.

The contents of this course should take into consideration the important IL aspects that enable students to acquire appropriate skills for information search, retrieval and use. With reference to specific study programmes, the course should be developed in collaboration between teaching staff from faculties and librarians. The course content should include the following:

introduction to sources of information (print and electronic, databases and directories);

introduction to search tools (search engines and web gateways);

information search strategies (search formulation and subject definition);

information search techniques (phrase query, Boolean operator, proximity search, truncation and concept mapping);

evaluation of information and information sources (print and web-based sources);

academic information writing (citation and referencing systems, reference management software such as Zotero and Mendley);

intellectual property issues (plagiarism, copyright, patent information).

Although the idea of integrating IL into the curriculum is considered excellent practice for imparting IL to students, many higher learning institutions in Africa have not taken it as a serious IL intervention measure (Lwoga, 2012). Thus, it is important as recommended by Owusu-Ansah (2004) and Rockman et al. (2004) for university communities to develop a campus wide culture that recognizes the value of IL within the university curriculum.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author biography

Mugyabuso J. F. Lwehabura is an associate professor and deputy director for Sokoine National Agricultural Library (SNAL) at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). He holds a PhD in Information Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. His research interests include information literacy, library management academic and school libraries.

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