The effect of visual multimedia instructions against fake news spread: A quasi-experimental study with Nigerian students

Abstract

This study examined the effect of visual multimedia instructions (guided by literacy concepts) as an intervention strategy for improving fake news knowledge, detection skills and curtailing the tendency to share fake news. We used the inoculation theory, message interpretation process (MIP) theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning to provide a useful explanation for the interventions of literacy concept. Our study made use of 470 participants divided into two groups, comprising the control group, n = 235 and the treatment group, n = 235. After the experiment, we found that participants in the visual multimedia experimental group demonstrated a higher knowledge of fake news, better ability to detect fake news and shared more accurate news articles, compared to their counterparts who were instructed in a non-multimedia setting. We focused only on university students from one institution in Nigeria. Thus, we encourage future studies to extend beyond the student population.

Keywords

Fake news intervention strategy literacy concepts quasi-experiment visual multimedia

Introduction and background

Social networking is one of today’s most relevant technology, as it provides an easy and convenient way to share news and information with a heterogeneous audience (Appel et al., 2020; Bermes, 2021; Ikusika, 2021; Laato et al., 2020). It has fundamentally altered how people exchange and assimilate information (Naeem, 2021). Users can connect with their peers on social media by creating and posting content (Pundir et al., 2021). Despite the social media benefits, fake news has been widely circulated, and the growing dissemination of this false news has caused concern for civil society, the public and policymakers (Neyazi et al., 2021). Social media plays a key role in spreading false news according to previous research (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017). Further study shows that social media websites like Facebook and Twitter helped spread false news articles worldwide (Morris et al., 2020; Roozenbeek and van der Linden, 2019). Fake news is described as reports that are made up and reported as though they came from reliable sources (Lazer et al., 2018). And one concern over fake news is that it circulates quicker than real news and as such countering rumours by disseminating accurate information has been shown to be ineffective (Appel et al., 2020; Vosoughi et al., 2018).

There have been several means of fighting fake news due to increasing questions about the effects of false news in society (Clayton et al., 2020; Jones-Jang et al., 2021; Lewandowsky et al., 2017). Media, information, news and digital literacies education have been argued to assist people to develop the ability to better handle fake news (Clayton et al., 2020; Mele et al., 2017). In this study, we shall call the media, information, news and digital literacies as literacy concepts. As such, research suggests that improving media and digital literacy will help people better realise the threat of fake news and analyse content and its origins (Lee, 2018). Literacy concepts address the capacity of a person to view, analyse and interpret media and media content (Lee, 2018). In today’s digital environment, where photographic evidence is insufficient to persuade people to change their minds and fake news reports abound, equipping social media consumers with the ability to distinguish truth from falsehoods cannot be overstated (Herrero-Diz et al., 2019). As a result, those with higher levels of information, news and digital literacies may be more sceptical when receiving dubious or inaccurate content, reducing the effect of false news on society (Apuke and Omar, 2020).

Prior studies argued that it will be very difficult to undo the effect of fake news once it has been believed by an individual (Lewandowsky et al., 2017), and fact-checking could even have a backfire effect (Tandoc et al., 2020). Therefore, educating people to be sceptical can be a more powerful way to limit fake news instead of correcting misleading news (Lee, 2018). Khan and Idris (2019) suggested that individuals are at the forefront of reducing false news, and information, news and digital literacies could help achieve this goal. Corroborating this claim, recent research has also supported that information, news and digital literacies are necessary dimensions to combat fake news (Carr et al., 2020). As such, investigators were recently advised to concentrate on the user-centred solution (i.e. media literacy approach) to identify fake news, increase knowledge of fake news and reduce the spread of fake news (Jones-Jang et al., 2021).

Although, there is now a growing amount of quasi-experiment carried out to curtail fake news (Guess et al., 2020; Preston et al., 2021). Most of these experiments have been carried out using face-to-face instruction (De Keersmaecker and Roets, 2017; Dumitru, 2020), with no focus on employing visual multimedia to enhance the effectiveness of the instructions. No doubt, combining different elements could be an effective communication strategy because it will improve the chances of message effectiveness. According to Zumbach et al. (2004), multimedia is more effective than communication approaches that utilise only one message element. Multimedia is the application of graphics, text, video sound as well as animations to communicate meaning. It is communication content that combines different elements to express meaning. In this study, the concept of visual multimedia is used in reference to multimedia art that has visual elements. It is used in reference to a multimedia package that has elements that appeal to the eyes. This is because a person can decide to design multimedia elements that only appeal to the ears. Visual multimedia is designed with elements such as pictures, colours and video clips, among others.

To contribute and fill the void in the literature, we drew from the perspective of the inoculation theory, message interpretation process (MIP) theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and to carry out experimental research among some social media users in one public university in Nigeria. We aim to realise if participants exposed to literacy concepts via multimedia channels will demonstrate better fake news knowledge, detection skills and have a minimal tendency to share fake news compared to their counterparts instructed face-to-face. We brought in young university students for our experiment because they are proven to be at the forefront of technology acceptance and media usage (Lim and Tan, 2020).

This study is important because it goes beyond the studies that have looked at detecting and identifying fake news on social media (Aoun Barakat et al., 2021; Bondielli and Marcelloni, 2019; Guess et al., 2020; Mirzaei et al., 2019; Preston et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020), information verification (Torres et al., 2018) and proliferation (Talwar et al., 2019). It also extends studies that have experimented with face-to-face media literacy intervention for curtailing fake news (El Rayess et al., 2018; Herrero-Diz et al., 2019). Lastly, its focus on a developing country (Nigeria) is a welcomed idea since there is little concentration on this region despite the increasing amount of fake news circulation.

Literature review

Literacy concepts and fake news

A growing number of studies are now suggesting literacy interventions to combat fake news in societies. Firstly, one of the literacies that have attracted the interest of scholars is digital literacy. Guess et al. (2020) found that exposure to digital literacy aided people to distinguish between accurate and false news headlines. Consistent with this outcome, it has been found that digital literacy is one significant strategy used for combating fake news (Lee, 2018).

Secondly, another significant form of literacy that has attracted scholars is information literacy. The findings from Jones-Jang et al. (2021) showed that information literacy, but not other literacies substantially raises the probability of false news reports being identified. This resonates with prior studies which argued that social media users have the power to combat fake news through appropriate information literacy intervention, suggesting that information literacy could help to debunk false information (Kahne and Bowyer, 2017; Maksl et al., 2017).

Thirdly, news literacy has been highlighted in some studies. Vraga and Tully (2021) survey among American youths showed that news literacy increases people’s scepticism over messages found on social media. Therefore, it was concluded that those with high knowledge of news literacy will be keener on the quality of information on social media.

Fourthly, Pennycook and Rand (2019) stated that users’ deficiency in media literacy and critical thinking is contributing to fake news exposure and as such, users who demonstrated higher analytical reason were reported to have the more discerning skill to differentiate between incorrect and factual news. It has also been shown that media literacy could moderate the effect of fake news (Apuke and Omar, 2020; Torres et al., 2018). Mele et al. (2017) remarked that to combat fake news people need to be empowered with the required knowledge to evaluate the fake news they come across it.

Some authors have strongly criticised the literacy approach against fake news. This argument is based on people’s vulnerability in differentiating between factual and fake news due to information overload (Courtney, 2018; Herrero-Diz et al., 2019). It has also been reported that people share false information even if they are aware it is fake (Halpern et al., 2019). It is not a matter of more knowledge and skills, or even an information overload issue, but a matter of belief, especially when the news is aligned to a person’s ideological beliefs (Sullivan, 2019b). One possible explanation to demonstrate this phenomenon is the development of echo chambers which suggests that individuals choose to receive news that corroborates their views (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2005). This supports a growing body of studies that affirmed that individuals who receive fake news that corroborates with their pre-existing beliefs and values, hardly get motivated to engage in critical thinking to realise the accuracy of the message (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017; Lutzke et al., 2019; Sullivan, 2019a). It has also been shown that in many instances people tend to share information or stories based on affective or emotional appeal than factual accuracy, with the sole aim of corroborating their pre-existing beliefs and projecting their identity to like-minded individuals (Marwick and Boyd, 2011). Thus, the bandwagon effect where social media users blindly focus on certain information based on their perceived trends has been shown to lead to the circulation and consumption of fake news (Lee et al., 2018). In this circumstance, the only thing that matters is that information should fall within what the user wants to hear and believe (Burkhardt, 2017).

Multimedia and its impact

There have been a growing number of studies that have demonstrated the essence of using multimedia to enhance thinking skills, cognition and knowledge. Despite these efforts, no study has been carried out to realise if adopting multimedia in teaching literacy concepts will be more effective in improving fake news knowledge, detection skills and lessen the inclination to circulate fake news. Multimedia is the use of images, text, video, music and animations to convey information. It is a type of communication content that combines several aspects to convey meaning. Ugwulor-Onyinyechi et al. (2021) say that different communication elements are combined in multimedia to communicate meaning. Multimedia is a considerably more successful communication method than alternatives that rely just on a single message aspect (Zumbach et al., 2004).

The influence of visual multimedia on enhancing security awareness, attentiveness and understanding of kidnapping preventative measures among secondary school pupils in Nigeria was investigated by Ugwulor-Onyinyechi et al. (2021). The researchers used a quasi-experiment to evaluate 470 secondary school pupils from places where banditry incidents had not occurred. Their findings revealed that the intervention group reported better levels of awareness, attentiveness and knowledge of abduction prevention strategies than the control group. Gilakjani (2012) investigated the use of visual multimedia in English Language lessons to see how successful it is. A total of 100 Iranians participated in the study, which was done in Iran. The researcher used a descriptive survey study strategy to gather data and used a structured questionnaire to do so. According to the findings of the study, up to 55% of the participants choose visual multimedia in their learning.

Shah and Khan (2015) conducted a quasi-experiment to investigate the effects of multimedia. The investigators selected at random 60 people for the experiment and control groups. The experiment group received primary scientific instruction via multimedia, whereas the control group received instruction via traditional classroom methods. According to the study’s findings, respondents in the multimedia group had higher mean scores than those in the control group. The conclusion is that multimedia is a superior alternative for teaching primary scientific courses than a typical classroom environment.

Akinoso (2018) researched the influence of multimedia on secondary school students’ mathematics learning. A total of 60 people took part in the investigation. Members in the treatment group received the multimedia intervention, whereas those in the control group did not. The study’s findings revealed that individuals in the treatment group had higher mean mathematics scores than those in the control group. According to the findings of the research discussed above, multimedia is an excellent tool for influencing human behaviour and knowledge.

Theoretical underpinning and hypotheses development

We used the inoculation theory, message interpretation process (MIP) theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning to provide a valuable clarification for the intervention of literacy concepts. The inoculation theory proposes that prior experience assists individuals against impending attacks (McGuire, 1964). Relating this postulation to the fake news context, it could be argued that when people are provided with the needed knowledge and skills to critically assess fake news, it will empower them against the harmful effect of fake news (Jeong et al., 2012).

The message interpretation process (MIP) argues that exposing people to adequate message interventions can mediate the association between contact to detrimental information and subsequent decision making (Austin, 2007). For instance, the MIP contends that children’s exposure to media coverage of the use of substances can never result in risky behaviour choices if sufficient media education is provided (Kupersmidt et al., 2012).

Clark (2001), who evaluated twelve principles of instructional design based on experimental investigations to explain the influence of visuals and words in learning, is credited with developing the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The theory assumes that when both text and visuals are used to deliver information rather than just text, greater and more effective learning occurs (Clark and Mayer, 2008). The idea assumes that while processing information into working memory, two learning channels are integrated (Zumbach et al., 2004). The multimedia theory of learning can be broken down into a series of seven principles as defined by Clark and Mayer (2003):

Multimedia principle: words and graphics are better than words alone

Contiguity principle: align words to corresponding graphics

Modality principle: present words as audio narration, rather than on-screen text

Redundancy principle: explain visuals with words in audio or text, not both

Coherence principle: adding interesting material can hurt learning

Personalisation principle: use a conversational style and virtual coaches

Segmenting and pretraining principle: managing complexity by breaking a lesson into parts

Thus, applying this theory to the current study, while teaching literacy concepts investigators should use both words and graphics to provide instruction or content, keep text and graphics aligned, use narration whenever possible, but do not use narration and on-screen text at the same time, avoid using images, audio, transitions and other elements that distract or that do not relate to the content, use a conversational style and consider using avatars or virtual learning coaches to guide learning and break lessons into small ‘chunks’ of 10–15 minutes maximum. According to Ikechukwu-Ilomuanya et al. (2021), when these principles are followed it will yield a better learning outcome. Drawing from these theories and the literature above, we hypothesised that:

H1 Participants who are exposed to literacy concepts through visual multimedia will score higher on fake news knowledge, than their counterparts who are not.

H2 Participants who are exposed to literacy concepts through visual multimedia will score higher in their ability to detect fake news, than their counterparts who are not.

H3 Participants who are exposed to literacy concepts through visual multimedia will score higher in sharing accurate news articles, than their counterparts who are not.

In this study, fake news knowledge is the basic understanding of what fake news is all about, while fake news detection is the ability to spot fake news from the real news on social media. Lastly, sharing accurate news deals with the ability to be able to circulate accurate news from false news found on social media.

Methodology

Research design

The quasi-experiment was conducted to assess the impact of using visual multimedia to teach literacy concepts to curtail the spread of fake news among social media users. We decided to perform a quasi-experiment to see how the control and treatment groups differed in their knowledge, ability to spot false news, and spreading of fake news.

Sampling procedure

To realise the needed sample size, a prior power analysis was used with a G*power. The parameters used were a power (1–β) of 0.90, an effect size of f = 0.30 and α of G = 0.05. The results indicate that 470 participants are needed to detect statistical disparities at the 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, 470 participants were randomly recruited to take part in the experiment. The participants were undergraduate students at a faculty of media and communication in a large public university in Nigeria. These participants were assured of their confidentiality, suggesting that their names will not be published. We divided these participants into two equal parts (n = 235) to form the treatment and control groups.

Treatment procedure

In this study, we had two groups, the visual multimedia group, and the non-multimedia group. In order words, the research team used two counselling settings to carry out the experiment for this investigation. The first was a multimedia media setting, while the second was a traditional face-to-face setting. The participants in the visual multimedia counselling received a multimedia DVD with recorded video clips, still graphics, audio recordings and text. The researchers also provided DVD players to the study participants so that they could view the visual multimedia information. The content of the DVD focused on an in-depth explanation of fake news, literacy concepts, the relationship between literacy concepts and fake news, how to spot and detect fake news, the essence of fighting fake news, dangers of fake news in society. The control group also received the same lesson in a traditional classroom setting. The treatment lasted for about 3 weeks.

The multimedia DVD was filmed to focus on what literacy concepts are all about. By extension, the participants were taught the difference between digital, information, news and media literacy and their relationship with fake news. Furthermore, the filming of the visual multimedia DVD was done in such a way to show the dangers of fake news and how it has caused chaos in society. There were texts highlighting the essence of fighting fake news. The texts also focused on fake news definition. Audio-recording explanations also accompanied these texts. There was also a visual illustration showing how to detect and spot fake news content on social media. Still images were also included, to allow visualisation. The still images revealed potential threats of fake news and pictorial illustration of the damage it has caused to the society; this was accompanied by captions and audio recordings. There was also the inclusion of video clips related to the essence of authenticating news before sharing. After the experiment, the control group received another round of instruction using the visual multimedia channel.

Measures

Fake news knowledge: We created 12 item questions with five responses ranging from Strongly Agree to Disagree to assess fake news knowledge. Some of the questions were reverse coded/scored. ‘A news report that does not fit the title is generally fake news’, for example, is a non-reversed question. The reverse coded question example, on the other hand, is ‘a news report that uses credible sources is fake news’.

Fake news detection: To measure the participant’s ability to spot or detect fake news we adapted the method from the study of Preston et al. (2021). In this view, 20 news items were presented to them in a Facebook post format, in which 10 were false and 10 were accurate. We fact-checked these news items (www.fullfact.org) before presenting it to the participants. We asked the participants to critically assess each of the articles and answer four questions. To respond to the questions, a Likert scale ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree was used. Four criteria (objectivity, professionalism, argument strength and trustworthiness) were considered when assessing the articles. The participants were asked the extent to which they agree to the following statement: Q1. The attached article along with its author are objective (objectivity). Q2. This article seems to be created by a professional (professionalism). Q3. The article presents a strong argument (argument strength). Q4. The article’s source is trustworthy and reliable (trustworthiness). We reverse scored the fake news items to enable us to have an accurate analysis and results.

Fake news sharing: We also examined the participants’ ability to distinguish between true and false news. We asked them if they were likely to share the 20 news pieces shown to them above with their network peers. To determine whether they agreed to share the news pieces, a five-point Likert scale was utilised, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 5 representing strongly agree. For articles that were fake, we reverse-scored participants’ responses during our analysis. It is worth noting that the questionnaire was given to both the control and treatment groups before and after the therapy. This was done to track the treatment’s effectiveness.

Data collection and analysis

In April 2021, a questionnaire was utilised to collect data. To guarantee the instrument’s applicability, we engaged three specialists from the Department of Mass Communication at Taraba State University in Jalingo, Nigeria. In addition, a test-retest technique was used to determine the instrument’s reliability. As a result, a pilot survey was performed with 20 people who were not part of the final study. For false news knowledge, the instrument’s coefficient correlation was determined to be 0.82. The instrument scored 0.77 for false news sharing and 0.79 for fake news detection/spotting, suggesting that it is reliable. To analyse our data, we employed descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics were calculated using means and standard deviations, whereas the inferential statistics were calculated using independent t-tests at the 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The study team was successful in retrieving questionnaire copies from the 470 participants, which included 235 members of the control group and 235 members of the treatment group. We also ensured that there was no significant gender imbalance by having 117 male and 118 female participants in the control group and 118 male and 117 female participants in the treatment group. We found that the entire participants were between the ages of 18 and 35. This is not surprising since we focused on undergraduate students.

The understanding of false news among the sampled individuals at the baseline was determined in Table 1. The findings demonstrated that before receiving therapy, the research participants knew very little about false news. However, after the treatment (Time 2), we realised the groups significantly differed. The treatment group who were taught via visual multimedia scored higher. It is worthwhile to note that the mean difference in the control group increased, suggesting that overall, literacy concept is important in improving fake news knowledge, however, literacy concepts taught with the aid of visual multimedia-enhanced better understanding. By implication, this result supported our first hypothesis which suggests that participants who are exposed to literacy concepts guided by visual multimedia will score higher on fake news knowledge, than their counterparts who are not.

Table 1.

Mean and t-test results on fake news knowledge score in the pre-treatment (Time 1) and post-treatment (Time 2) based on group.

		Pre-treatment (Time 1)					Post treatment (Time 2)
Group	M ₁	SD₁	Df	t-value	p-Value	M₂	SD₂	Df	t-value	p-Value
Control	1.4	0.63				2.5	0.34
Treatment	1.9	0.13	11	1.10	0.62	4.5	0.23	11	7.54	0.01

n = 235 for each group.

Table 2 shows whether individuals who were taught literacy principles using visual multimedia were better at recognising fake news stories. Both groups scored poorly in recognising false news stories at the pre-treatment stage, hence there was no significant difference between them. Nonetheless, following the treatment, we discovered that the experiment group that was exposed to literacy concepts using visual multimedia performed better in recognising false news than the control group, whose scores improved but were still lower than the group that was taught using visual multimedia. As a result, the second hypothesis was accepted: employing visual multimedia to teach literacy concepts is a more successful intervention technique.

Table 2.

Mean and t-test results on detecting/spotting fake news in the pre-treatment (Time 1) and post-treatment (Time 2) based on group.

		Pre-treatment (Time 1)					Post treatment (Time 2)
Group	M ₁	SD₁	Df	t-value	p-Value	M ₂	SD ₂	Df	t-value	p-value
Control	1.1	0.76				2.9	0.72
Treatment	1.2	0.69	19	1.14	0.67	4.6	0.83	19	7.22	0.01

n = 235 for each group.

Table 3 assessed the participants’ ability to distinguish between true and false news. We discovered that before the therapy, there was no significant difference in both groups’ capacity to spread true news vs fraudulent news since both groups scored low. The experiment group, on the other hand, scored higher in their capacity to disseminate true news from false news after being taught literacy concept ideas using visual multimedia platforms. The mean score changes in the control group in Time 2, yet, it was not as high as that of those who were exposed to literacy principles via visual multimedia (treatment group). As a result, individuals who were exposed to literacy principles through visual multimedia performed better than those who were not in terms of resisting the temptation to spread fake news. We found support for our third hypothesis, which states that individuals who are introduced to literacy ideas through visual multimedia will share more correct news stories than those who are not.

Table 3.

Mean and t-test results on the likelihood of fake news sharing in the pre-treatment (Time 1) and post-treatment (Time 2) based on group.

		Pre-treatment (Time 1)					Post treatment (Time 2)
Group	M ₁	SD₁	Df	t-value	p-Value	M ₂	SD₂	Df	t-value	p-value
Control	1.5	0.52				2.5	0.62
Treatment	1.7	0.72	19	1.19	0.71	4.5	0.88	19	7.84	0.01

n = 235 for each group.

Discussion

This study determined the effectiveness of teaching literacy concepts using visual multimedia to improve fake news knowledge, detection skills and curtailing the tendency to share fake news. The results showed that teaching literacy concepts via visual multimedia was more effective in improving the knowledge of the participants in the treatment group, unlike the control group who were taught without the aid of visual multimedia. This supported the first hypothesis. By implication, the use of visual multimedia to expose people to information, news, media and digital literacies enhances fake news knowledge and understanding. These results extend researches that have advocated literacy concepts in dealing with fake news (Carr et al., 2020; Vraga and Tully, 2021). It brings to the fore that teaching literacy concepts via visual multimedia could lead to a better outcome, than teaching literacy in a traditional classroom setting that does not harness the essence of visual multimedia.

The results also demonstrate the effectiveness of using visual multimedia to teach literacies to enhance individuals to spot fake news articles. We found that participants who were taught literacy concepts using visual multimedia scored higher in identifying false news articles than those who were not. These results extend the argument of other researchers that have advocated for media, information, news and digital literacies role in improving people’s ability to spot fake news (Aoun Barakat et al., 2021; Guess et al., 2020; Mirzaei et al., 2019; Preston et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2020). The aptitude to distinguish between false and legitimate news is associated with critical reasoning (Pennycook and Rand, 2019). Contrary to our outcome, some authors have argued that improving literacies does not improve people’s detection of fake news. This is because individuals who receive fake news that corroborates with their pre-existing beliefs and values, hardly get motivated to engage in critical thinking to realise the accuracy of the message (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017; Lutzke et al., 2019; Sullivan, 2019b). Nevertheless, we have been able to show that when literacy interventions are mixed with visual multimedia it could improve the ability to spot fake news. Multimedia is a far more effective communication strategy than communication approaches that utilise a single message element (Bamidele and Ibrahim, 2019; Zumbach et al., 2004).

Finally, we tested the effectiveness of using visual multimedia to teach literacies to curtail fake news sharing. The result suggests that before the treatment both the control and treatment, group scored low in their ability to share factual news amidst fake news articles. However, after the treatment we realised that those who were taught using visual multimedia had a better ability to share accurate news and decline fake news. This supports the past argument which suggests that multimedia leads to an improvement in memory (Penney, 1989). This may be as a result of the fact that receivers are exposed to different message elements. Second, the application of multimedia encourages active information processing (Ikechukwu-Ilomuanya et al., 2021). Furthermore, multimedia present more information at the same time, unlike single media (Ugwulor-Onyinyechi et al., 2021). This study has also extended previous studies (Ugwulor-Onyinyechi et al., 2021), on the impact of visual multimedia by looking at how it could be corroborated with literacy concepts.

Implication for theory

This study contributes to the literature in several ways. Theoretically, it confirms the postulations of the inoculation and message interpretation process (MIP) theory. With regards to inoculation theory, it could be seen that providing knowledge and skills to resist or critically evaluate fake news articles empowers people to be ‘inoculated’ against any detrimental influence of fake news (Jeong et al., 2012). Additionally, this study supports the message interpretation process (MIP) theory as it has proven that people’s exposure to fake news on social media may not necessarily lead to fake news proliferation as far as adequate education on media messages and realism is provided (Kupersmidt et al., 2012).

Moreover, the current study has extended the literature on the impact of multimedia. Previous attempts (Ikechukwu-Ilomuanya et al., 2021; Ugwulor-Onyinyechi et al., 2021; Zumbach et al., 2004) at investigating the impact of multimedia were limited to issues such as language learning, learning new skills, among others. Therefore, by looking at the impact of using visual multimedia to teach literacy concepts to improve fake news knowledge, detecting skills and reduce the tendency to share fake news, this current study has added a fresh perspective to the application of cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

Finally, this study has extended studies that have merely focused on fake news sharing without proposing a solution (Talwar et al., 2019, 2020). It also goes beyond studies that have focused on fake news detection and identification on social media (Aoun Barakat et al., 2021; Bondielli and Marcelloni, 2019; Guess et al., 2020; Mirzaei et al., 2019; Preston et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020), information verification (Torres et al., 2018) and proliferation (Talwar et al., 2019). Through this study, the claim which suggests the use of media literacy in curtailing fake news (El Rayess et al., 2018; Herrero-Diz et al., 2019) has been solidified. Lastly, our focus on developing country (Nigeria) is a huge contribution due to the lack of studies focusing on this region.

Implication for practice

Based on the outcome of this study, we recommend the Nigerian government and all relevant authorities to intensify their efforts in improving the populace literacy level to help in curtailing fake news spread. Teaching literacy concepts through visual multimedia should be adopted henceforth to upsurge the effectiveness of literacy campaigns to combat fake news. Digital, news, information and media literacies should be made a compulsory course right from primary school. This will increase the knowledge of students and others right from the embryonic stages. Fighting fake news requires collective efforts, as such, we encourage people to make it a habit to improve their literacy level by attending seminars and workshops. This will go a long way in improving their fake news knowledge and detection skills.

Conclusion and recommendation for further studies

When interpreting the outcome of this study, caution should be taken. There have been a growing body of argument regarding the limitations of literacy instruction in curtailing fake news because some people even after getting exposed to literacy intervention will still propagate fake news because it resonates with their views. For instance, evidence has shown that people tend to share information or stories based on affective or emotional appeal than factual accuracy, with the sole aim of corroborating their pre-existing beliefs and projecting their identity to like-minded individuals (Marwick and Boyd, 2011). Thus, the bandwagon effect where social media users blindly focus on certain information based on their perceived trends has been shown to lead to the circulation and consumption of fake news (Lee et al., 2018). In this circumstance, the only thing that matters is that information should fall within what the user wants to hear and believe (Burkhardt, 2017). Thus, in this study we are not entirely stating the fact that literacy concepts instruction carried out using visual multimedia will completely curtail fake news spread, however, exposing participants to literacy concepts via visual multimedia channels could go a long way in increasing their fake news knowledge, detection skills and curtail fake news proliferation. The literacy concept is just one step out of many that researchers should continue to explore to fight fake news. Further ways to decrease fake news spread should be the focus of future studies.

This study has some limitations. We focused only on university students from one institution in Nigeria, as such, the generalisability and interpretation of the results should be done with caution. Thus, the measurements were performed with chosen samples and in a controlled environment. We encourage future studies to extend beyond the student population. Despite these weaknesses, our study has been able to bring to the fore the intervening role of teaching news, information, digital and media literacy via the visual multimedia platform to handle fake news which will assist policymakers.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Oberiri Destiny Apuke

Author biographies

Oberiri Destiny Apuke, is a lecturer at the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria. He holds a PhD in Communication from the Universiti Sains Malaysia, with a specialisation in online journalism. He has published in reputable journals such as Telematics and Informatics, Asian and African Studies, Health Informatics Journal, Child and Youth Services, Health Education Research and Refugee Studies. His research interests include fake news, online journalism, social media, gender studies, conflict studies as well as film and media studies. Contact: apukedestiny@gmail.com.

Bahiyah Omar, is an Associate Professor and the Dean at the School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Her research interests include online media, fake news, media use and communication studies. Contact: bahiyah@usm.my.

Elif Asude Tunca, is a Professor and Dean at the European University of Lefke, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Department of New Media and Journalism, Lefke, Northern Cyprus, Turkey. Contact: etunca@eul.edu.tr.

Gever Verlumun Celestine, is a lecturer at the Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. He holds a PhD in mass communication. His area of specialisation in his doctoral programme is multimedia and journalism. Gever is an enthusiastic communication scholar with publications in Web of Science and Scopus indexed journals. He has published widely in areas like media and conflict, political communication, new media, gender as well as representational communication. Gever is grounded in communication research, data analysis and research methodologies. Contact: encyclopeadia100@gmail.com

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