People are often motivated to increase others' positive experiences and to alleviate others' suffering. These tendencies to care about and help one another form the foundation of human society. When the target is an outgroup member, however, people may have powerful motivations not to care about or help that “other.” In such cases, empathic responses are rare and fragile; it is easy to disrupt the chain from perception of suffering to motivation to alleviate the suffering to actual helping. We highlight recent interdisciplinary research demonstrating that outgroup members' suffering elicits dampened empathic responses as compared to ingroup members' suffering. We consider an alternative to empathy in the context of intergroup competition: schadenfreude—pleasure at others' pain. Finally, we review recent investigations of intergroup-conflict interventions that attempt to increase empathy for outgroups. We propose that researchers across the range of psychological sciences stand to gain a better understanding of the foundations of empathy by studying its limitations.
BatsonC. D. (2009). (See References). A clearly written, user-friendly, and brief review for readers who wish to expand their knowledge of empathy research.
2.
ChiaoJ.Y., & MathurV.A. (2010). Intergroup empathy: How does race affect empathic neural responses?Current Biology, 20, R478–R480. A brief and accessible review of neurophysiological explanations of group-based modulation of empathic responses.
3.
Paluck & Green (2009). (See References). A comprehensive, highly accessible overview of what is known about prejudice reduction interventions.
BatsonC.D. (2009). These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct phenomena. In DecetyJ., & IckesW.J. (Eds.), The social neuroscience of empathy (pp. 3–15). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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BatsonC.D., & AhmadN.Y. (2009). Using empathy to improve intergroup attitudes and relations.Social Issues and Policy Review, 3, 141.
7.
BruneauE.G., & SaxeR. (2011). Perspective-taking and perspective-giving offer asymmetric benefits to members of dominant and non-dominant groups involved in conflict. Manuscript submitted for publication.
8.
CehajicS., BrownR., & CastanoE. (2008). Forgive and forget? Antecedents and consequences of intergroup forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina.Political Psychology, 29, 351–367.
9.
ChoiJ., & BowlesS. (2007). The coevolution of parochial altruism and war.Science, 318, 636–640.
10.
CikaraM., BotvinickM.M., & FiskeS.T. (2011). Us versus them: Social identity shapes neural responses to intergroup competition and harm.Psychological Science, 22, 306–313.
11.
CikaraM., & FiskeS.T. (2011). Stereotypes and schadenfreude: Affective and physiological markers of pleasure at outgroups' misfortunes. Manuscript submitted for publication.
12.
CohenT.R., MontoyaR.M., & InskoC.A. (2006). Group morality and intergroup relations: Cross–cultural and experimental evidence.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1559–1572.
13.
CombsD.J.Y., PowellC.A. J., SchurtzD.R., & SmithR.H. (2009). Politics, schadenfreude, and ingroup identification: The sometimes happy thing about a poor economy and death.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 635–646.
14.
CuddyA.J.C., RockM.S., & NortonM.I. (2007). Aid in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: Inferences of secondary emotions and intergroup helping.Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 107–118.
15.
DecetyJ., & IckesW. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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19.
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20.
LeachC.W., & SpearsR. (2009). Dejection at in-group defeat and schadenfreude toward second- and third-party out-groups.Emotion, 9, 659–665.
21.
MalhotraD., & LiyanageS. (2005). Long-term effects of peace workshops in protracted conflicts.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, 908–924.
22.
MastenC.L., Gillen-O'NeelC., & BrownC.S. (2010). Children's intergroup empathic processing: The roles of novel ingroup identification, situational distress, and social anxiety.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 115–128.
23.
MathurV.A., HaradaT., LipkeT., & ChiaoJ. (2010). Neural basis of extraordinary empathy and altruistic motivation.NeuroImage, 51, 1468–1475.
24.
MeierB.P., & HinszV.B. (2004). A comparison of human aggression committed by groups and individuals: An interindividual–intergroup discontinuity.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 551–559.
25.
PaluckE.L. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 574–587.
26.
PaluckE.L., & GreenD.P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice.Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 339–367.
27.
PettigrewT.F, & TroppL. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783.
28.
PrestonS.D., & de WaalF.B.M. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases.Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 1–72.
29.
SingerT., SeymourB., O'DohertyJ.P., StephanK.E., DolanR.J., & FrithC.D. (2006). Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others.Nature, 26, 466–469.
30.
SmithR.H., PowellC.A.J., CombsD.J.Y., & SchurteD.R. (2009). Exploring the when and why of schadenfreude.Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 530–546.
31.
TakahashiH., KatoM., MatsuuraM., MobbsD., SuharaT., & OkuboY. (2009). When your gain is my pain and your pain is my gain: Neural correlates of envy and schadenfreude.Science, 323, 937–939.
32.
VorauerJ.D., & SasakiS.J. (2009). Helpful only in the abstract? ironic effects of empathy in intergroup interaction.Psychological Science, 20, 191–197.
33.
XuX., ZuoX., WangX., & HanS. (2009). Do you feel my pain? racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses.Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 8525–8529.
BatsonC.D. (2009). These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct phenomena. In DecetyJ., & IckesW.J. (Eds.), The social neuroscience of empathy (pp. 3–15). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
36.
BatsonC.D., & AhmadN.Y. (2009). Using empathy to improve intergroup attitudes and relations.Social Issues and Policy Review, 3, 141.
37.
BruneauE.G., & SaxeR. (2011). Perspective-taking and perspective-giving offer asymmetric benefits to members of dominant and non-dominant groups involved in conflict. Manuscript submitted for publication.
38.
CehajicS., BrownR., & CastanoE. (2008). Forgive and forget? Antecedents and consequences of intergroup forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina.Political Psychology, 29, 351–367.
39.
ChoiJ., & BowlesS. (2007). The coevolution of parochial altruism and war.Science, 318, 636–640.
40.
CikaraM., BotvinickM.M., & FiskeS.T. (2011). Us versus them: Social identity shapes neural responses to intergroup competition and harm.Psychological Science, 22, 306–313.
41.
CikaraM., & FiskeS.T. (2011). Stereotypes and schadenfreude: Affective and physiological markers of pleasure at outgroups' misfortunes. Manuscript submitted for publication.
42.
CohenT.R., MontoyaR.M., & InskoC.A. (2006). Group morality and intergroup relations: Cross–cultural and experimental evidence.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1559–1572.
43.
CombsD.J.Y., PowellC.A. J., SchurtzD.R., & SmithR.H. (2009). Politics, schadenfreude, and ingroup identification: The sometimes happy thing about a poor economy and death.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 635–646.
44.
CuddyA.J.C, RockM.S., & NortonM.I. (2007). Aid in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: Inferences of secondary emotions and intergroup helping.Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 107–118.
45.
DecetyJ., & IckesW. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
46.
DovidioJ.F., GaertnerS.L., HodsonG., HouletteM., & JohnsonK.M. (2005). Social inclusion and exclusion: Recategorization and the perception of intergroup boundaries. In AbramsD., MarquesJ.M., & HoggM.A. (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (pp. 246–264). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
47.
DovidioJ.F., JohnsonJ.D., GaertnerS.L., PearsonA.R., SaguyT., & Ashburn-NardoL. (2010). Empathy and intergroup relations. In MikulincerM., & ShaverP.R. (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 393–408). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
48.
GingesJ., & AtranS. (2009). What motivates participation in violent political action.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167, 115–123.
49.
HeinG., SilaniG., PreuschoffK., BatsonC.D., & SingerT. (2010). Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members' suffering predict individual differences in costly helping.Neuron, 68, 149–160.
50.
LeachC.W., & SpearsR. (2009). Dejection at in-group defeat and schadenfreude toward second- and third-party out-groups.Emotion, 9, 659–665.
51.
MalhotraD., & LiyanageS. (2005). Long-term effects of peace workshops in protracted conflicts.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, 908–924.
52.
MastenC.L., Gillen-O'NeelC., & BrownC.S. (2010). Children's intergroup empathic processing: The roles of novel ingroup identification, situational distress, and social anxiety.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 115–128.
53.
MathurV.A., HaradaT., LipkeT., & ChiaoJ. (2010). Neural basis of extraordinary empathy and altruistic motivation.NeuroImage, 51, 1468–1475.
54.
MeierB.P., & HinszV.B. (2004). A comparison of human aggression committed by groups and individuals: An interindividual–intergroup discontinuity.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 551–559.
55.
PaluckE.L. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 574–587.
56.
PaluckE.L., & GreenD.P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice.Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 339–367.
57.
PettigrewT.F, & TroppL. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783.
58.
PrestonS.D., & de WaalF.B.M. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases.Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 1–72.
59.
SingerT., SeymourB., O'DohertyJ.P., StephanK.E., DolanR.J., & FrithC.D. (2006). Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others.Nature, 26, 466–469.
60.
SmithR.H., PowellC.A.J., CombsD.J.Y., & SchurteD.R. (2009). Exploring the when and why of schadenfreude.Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 530–546.
61.
TakahashiH., KatoM., MatsuuraM., MobbsD., SuharaT., & OkuboY. (2009). When your gain is my pain and your pain is my gain: Neural correlates of envy and schadenfreude.Science, 323, 937–939.
62.
VorauerJ.D., & SasakiS.J. (2009). Helpful only in the abstract? ironic effects of empathy in intergroup interaction.Psychological Science, 20, 191–197.
63.
XuX., ZuoX., WangX., & HanS. (2009). Do you feel my pain? racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses.Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 8525–8529.
