Abstract
This paper looks, in the first place, at gender issues in Pentecostal Christianity in Nigeria. This is especially as captured by the Nigerian writer, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, in her novel, Americanah. It is found that women in Nigerian Pentecostalism are more than the men in number and participate more actively both in church activities and in spiritual efforts at home. However, it is mostly the men who are the pastors and leaders of the Nigerian Pentecostal churches, even if at home, by what is sometimes called ‘domestication’ of the same men, the women are empowered in some ways. The paper then considers what their place has in common with the place of women in the Roman Catholic Church in contemporary Nigeria. The paper adds to the existing literature on the place and role of women in both Pentecostalism and Catholicism in contemporary Nigeria.
Introduction
Born in 1977 in Enugu, Nigeria, award-winning Nigerian writer, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, has always been fascinated with the power of religion. 1 This is evident in the fact that she has featured religion in the majority of her works. 2 But she has never been one to shy away from discussing, in the majority of the same works, issues affecting women in religion, society and culture. Little wonder, Eze confesses that as regards women’s issues, or better, feminism, she, Adichie, is the ‘most vocal of contemporary African women writers’. 3
This paper is in two sections. The first examines the portrait she presents, in her 477-page novel, Americanah (2013), of the place of women in Pentecostalism. This is especially in the latter’s presence in Nigeria, where it is today Christianity’s most dominant expression. 4 Granted, the place of women in Nigerian, even African, Pentecostalism has been fairly widely studied. 5 But to the best of my knowledge, no one has so studied their place in Nigerian Pentecostalism as captured by Adichie in her aforementioned novel. This hinges on the conviction that beyond mere entertainment, there is something more to gain from reading novels like Adichie’s Americanah. 6 The second section of the paper examines the relationship between the place of women in Pentecostal churches as captured by Adichie and their place in the Roman Catholic Church in contemporary Nigeria
A Brief History of Neo-Pentecostalism in Nigeria
The story of Nigerian Pentecostalism is better told by taking into consideration its peculiar evolution in both the Southeastern and Southwestern parts of the country. In the former, where the Igbos, one of the major ethnic groups in the country, live, early Pentecostalism is usually associated with Augustus E. Nwogu. In the early 1930s, he had an experience of the Holy Spirit and spoke in tongues. This resulted, however, in his expulsion from the Faith Tabernacle Church where he belonged. With others of like-mindedness, he founded, in 1934, ‘The Church of Jesus Christ’. An invitation from the latter to the Assemblies of God in Philadelphia, USA, led to the establishment in 1939 of the Assemblies of God, Nigeria.
This initial Pentecostal presence was later strengthened by the particular form of evangelical revivalism that followed the Nigeria-Biafra civil war of 1967–1970. It was spearheaded by some individuals from the mainline churches through their association with and participation in the Scripture Union in secondary schools. Due to the ambivalent encouragement of the aforementioned Assemblies of God, Nigeria, this soon led to the emergence of not only some charismatic renewal movements within the mainline churches, but, as expected, the birth, outside of them, of some neo-Pentecostal churches. 7
In the Southwestern part of the country where the Yorubas, another major ethnic group in Nigeria live, mention must be made of the Precious Stone Society. This was a prayer group founded in 1918, at the St. Saviour’s Anglican Church, Ijebu Ode, during the time of the Great Influenza. Members of the group refused to take medicines, but relied solely on prayer, for healing. Hence, their Yoruba nickname ‘Aladura’ (praying people). Linking up with the Faith Tabernacle in Philadelphia, USA, the Precious Stone Society later changed its name first to Faith Tabernacle of Nigeria, and then, to the Apostolic Church. Although excommunicated for preaching without being an ordained minister, 8 William F. Kumuyi, the founder and General Superintendent of the Deeper Life Bible Church, one of Nigeria’s well-known neo-Pentecostal churches, was once a member of this Apostolic Church. 9 In fact, it was from this Apostolic Church’s discipline that he imbibed his holiness ethic. 10
Another ‘Aladura Church’ worth mentioning here is the Cherubim and Seraphim Movement, founded in 1925. It was one of its members, Josiah Akindayomi, who founded, in 1952, the Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG). The latter, another of Nigeria’s neo-Pentecostal churches, and, indeed, the arrowhead of Nigerian Pentecostalism, 11 is today headed by Enoch Adeboye. Similarly, David Oyedepo, the founder of Living Faith Church (Winners’ Chapel), yet another popular neo-Pentecostal Church in Nigeria, also passed through the womb of the same Cherubim and Seraphim Movement. He was a pastor there for many years.
But apart from the above impact of Aladura churches, another factor that contributed to the development of contemporary Pentecostalism in southwestern Nigeria was the activities of students in the 1970s in both secondary and tertiary institutions. This was mainly through the Christian Union and the Scripture Union, at the University of Ibadan, and then, University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University. It was thanks to these ‘pentecostalized’ students, some whom were later influenced by some American Pentecostal evangelists, 12 that the Pentecostal message was taken to many places in Nigeria. This was especially through their participation in the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC); a federal government scheme introduced in 1973 that made it possible for graduates of the tertiary institutions to serve for 1 year outside their own geographical areas. 13
What started off as ‘House Fellowships’ or Bible Study groups, by some of these graduates and others in many places, soon metamorphosed into churches. Before long, however, some of these churches, the majority of which emerged from the 1970s onwards, began to fragment, and led to the birth of others. By 2006, numbers were in the neighbourhoods of 5750. 14 But today, that number, especially in the southern part of the country, has increased 10 times over. This is because there is hardly any day that these churches do not spring up. 15 Hence, contemporary Nigeria may be referred to as a ‘Pentecostal Republic’. 16 And in this ‘republic’, men and women, young and old, live and function.
Women in Nigerian Neo-Pentecostalism and Adichie’s Americanah
The place of women in Nigerian Pentecostalism is captured by Adichie in Americanah through the actions and inactions of the following characters that have something to do with Pentecostalism: Ifemelu, the protagonist and narrator of the novel; her mother; Mrs Ojo, the colleague of Ifemelu’s mother; Kosi, the wife of Ifemelu’s friend, Obinze; Ranyinudo, Ifemelu’s friend; Sister Ibinabo and Pastor Gideon of the Guiding Assembly; Esther, the receptionist at the Zoe Magazine’s office where Ifemelu works; Kosi’s pastor, and then, Esther’s pastor. By critically examining their actions and inactions, the following conclusions can be drawn about the place of women:
Conversion Narrative
It is often the case that men and women make choices that eventuate in their moving from one religion to another or from one denomination to another within the same religion. While, of course, many factors precipitate this movement, it often smacks of lack of full integration into the belief system of their previous denominations or religions. 17 It is interesting to note that all the characters in Adichie’s Americanah that move from their previous Christian denominations to Pentecostal churches are women. For instance, from her Catholic faith, Ifemelu’s mother moves to Pentecostalism. She locates her reason for this in the fact that her new Pentecostal church, the Revival Saints, is not only a ‘Bible-believing church’, but also a ‘living church’. 18 From the Revival Saints she soon joins another Pentecostal church, Miracle Springs, and then yet another, the Guiding Assembly, in the last of which Ifemelu confesses that ‘her mother’s spirit had found a home’ (p. 43). As expected, Ifemelu, who is just 10 when her mother first joins Pentecostalism follows her. But her father does not. Equally, from her Anglican faith, Kosi, Obinze’s wife, moves to Pentecostalism. She cites as her reason for moving to a Pentecostal church, the House of David, the fact that equally it is a ‘Bible-believing church’ (p. 35).
Although the trajectory of Esther’s Pentecostal reality is not given in the novel, two things are obvious: Either she is born a Pentecostal, or, as in the case of Kosi, Ifemelu, and Ifemelu’s mother, she has moved from a mainline church or African initiated church, to Pentecostalism. In this latter situation, one has a case of what Stark and Finke 19 call reaffiliation, ‘shifts within religious traditions’. She could have as well – as often happens – moved from Islam or African Traditional Religion, to Pentecostal Christianity. Here, one has, according to the same Stark and Finke, a case of conversion proper, ‘shifts across religious traditions’. 20 The same holds in the case of both Ranyinudo and Mrs Ojo. And this movement of only the aforementioned female characters in the novel to Pentecostalism is not surprising. Women are generally the first to move or convert from their previous religion or denomination to Pentecostalism. 21
The Issue of Prayer
Prayer is an important ingredient of Pentecostal life. Both men and women pray. During church services/meetings, and especially, as it relates to prayers of healing with the imposition of the hands, men are often at the vanguard.
22
But it is the women who are often the spiritual leaders of Pentecostal families. Their husbands, and, indeed, the entire household, often look up to them for spiritual direction and guidance.
23
For instance, not neglecting the prayers Pastor Gideon does during church services (p. 44), one of the noticeable things in Adichie’s novel is that it is the women, rather than the men, who are often found praying, or calling others for prayer, especially in their families. To start with, Ifemelu narrates how her mother calls her household to morning prayer, daily: Every morning, she woke the household up for prayers, and they would kneel on the scratchy carpet of the living room, singing, clapping, covering the day ahead with the blood of Jesus, and her mother’s words would pierce the stillness of dawn: ‘God, my heavenly father, I command you to fill this day with blessings and prove to me that you are God! Lord, I am waiting on you for my prosperity! Do not let the evil one win, do not let my enemies triumph over me!’ (p. 43)
Although Ifemelu reports that her father once says that her mother’s prayers ‘were delusional battles with imaginary traducers’ (pp. 43–44), and never, therefore, joins in the prayers, when he loses his job, he cannot but follow the family in prayer (p. 48). Equally, Obinze recounts that his wife, Kosi, is also in the habit of calling her own household for prayer (p. 464). Obinze is also a reluctant participant.
The Reality of Fasting
This is related to what is said above about prayer. Fasting is a spiritual discipline in many religions. In Christianity, both Pentecostals and Christians of the mainline/African initiated churches, fast.
24
But the former appear to accord it a somewhat greater value. Often, two types of fasts are carried out by Nigerian Pentecostals: (a) Dry fast: Here, one does not take either water or food. This is often for a shorter period of time, between 3 and 7 days.
25
(b) Straight fast: Here, one takes only water, but no food. This is often for a longer period of time, between 40 and 50 days.
26
In the novel, in the instances in which something is said about fasting, it is usually in relation to women Pentecostals. The first concerns Ifemelu’s mother. This is on the heels of her conversion from Catholicism to Pentecostalism: But after that afternoon [of Ifemelu’s mother’s conversion to Pentecostalism] her God changed . . . She bartered with Him, offering starvation in exchange for prosperity, for job promotion, for good health. She fasted herself bone-thin: dry fasts on weekends, and on weekdays, only water until evening. Ifemelu’s father followed her with anxious eyes, urging her to eat a little more, to fast a little less, and he always spoke carefully, so that she would not call him the devil’s agent and ignore him, as she had done with a cousin who was staying with them. ‘I am fasting for your father’s conversion’, she told Ifemelu often. . . . Ifemelu worried that she would, one day, simply snap into two and die. (p. 42)
There is also the case of the character, Esther. Zemaye who works also at Zoe Magazine’s office, reveals that this Esther is always: fasting! (p. 416)
Quest for Miracles
A certain kind of miracle-mania is at the heart of contemporary Nigerian Christianity, 27 especially, Pentecostalism. Among other things, it is a carryover of the quest for miracles in African traditional religion. 28 Thus, in the event of such difficulties as illnesses, childlessness, unemployment, and school failure, many Nigerian Pentecostals easily move from one Pentecostal church to another in search of miracles. 29 In this search, more women than men are involved. 30 In the novel, Doris, the editor of Zoe Magazine, reports how her aunt was cured of cancer in Esther’s church (p. 418). The latter may not have been her aunt’s original church, but one she has to visit for the sake of receiving healing. The common belief is that since the biblical Christ carried out many miracles, today’s Pentecostals can both carry out and receive the same. Only a simple faith to, ‘claim’ the said miracle is required. Hence, in the novel, Obinze accuses his wife, Kosi, of learning from her church, not only how to say: ‘There is power in the spoken word’ (p. 461), but also, how to say: ‘Claim your miracle’ (p. 461).
The Fact of Faith Healing
Faith healing involves the understanding that physical illnesses – some of which could have ordinarily been handled by orthodox medicine – may instead be healed through a solid demonstration of faith in Jesus Christ in prayer. According to its exponents, Jesus’ death on the cross atoned not only for the sin of humankind, but also the physical sickness of the same. 31 Granted, faith healing is a distinctive feature of Pentecostalism anywhere in the world. But today, it has become more popular in Nigeria because of the economic reality and the lack of adequate healthcare facilities in the country. 32
In Americanah, an instance on faith healing is provided by yet another female Pentecostal: Esther. MacNutt once confessed: ‘In no way do I conceive prayer for healing as a negation of the need for doctors, nurses, counselors, psychiatrists, or pharmacists’. 33 Esther does not seem to buy that. Down with typhoid that even made her face dull (p. 416), this Esther, an enthusiastic Pentecostal, would not have bought any medicine, or, – as she does eventually – gone to the hospital, if Doris had not given her money with a strict instruction to do so (p. 416). Of course, many factors may account for this. But a better appreciation of Esther’s religious psychology as revealed in the novel would definitely locate the reason more in her belief that she would be healed without any recourse to orthodox medicine. This could be through her prayers, or the use of anointing oil, or even, the handkerchief that she uses in fasting (p. 418). She could as well go to her pastor for a laying-on of hands since the latter is a ‘powerful man of God’ (p. 401).
Scope of Testimonies
In Pentecostal circles, a testimony is generally ‘a grateful public sharing of God’s gracious work in one’s life to the glory of God’.
34
While it is practised world over by both male and female Pentecostals, the latter are often more given to it. They are louder and more elaborate in their testimonies.
35
By the agency of these testimonies, they are not only able to reassure themselves of who they are, and have access to leadership roles normally reserved for men,
36
they also participate in and thus influence the theology and witness of their congregation.
37
Through Ifemelu’s mother, Adichie also portrays this reality of testimony in the novel: In church, at testimony time, her [Ifemelu’s] mother was first to hurry to the altar. ‘I had catarrh this morning’, she would start. ‘But as Pastor Gideon started to pray, it cleared. Now it is gone. Praise God!’ The congregation would shout ‘Alleluia!’ and other testimonies would follow. I did not study because I was sick and yet I passed my exams with flying colours! I had malaria and prayed over it and was cured! My cough disappeared as Pastor started praying! But always her mother went first, gliding and smiling, enclosed in salvation’s glow. (p. 44, emphasis original)
While it is acknowledged that Adichie does not, as shown above, reveal the identities of the three other testifiers, it is more probable that they are still women.
Exorcism and Deliverance
The belief is rife among African Pentecostals that not only can the devil take hold of a Christian and hinder his or her progress, but that it often takes a powerful man/woman of God to diagnose this and thus, by binding and casting, deliver the said person from the shackles of the demon. 38 Such deliverance is considered one of the distinguishing marks of Nigerian, and wider African Pentecostalism. 39 In fact, it is one of the factors that makes for its rapid growth. 40 Granted, men and women are and can be demon-possessed. However, the majority of those who come forward, either by themselves, or brought by others, for exorcism and deliverance, are women. 41 This is against the backdrop that in most places in Nigeria/Africa, it is the women that are mostly blamed for witchcraft, and by extension, as being possessed of other evil spirits, and thus more in need of deliverance. 42
In the novel, the majority of those said to be in need of deliverance are women. For instance, Ifemelu once had a spat with Sister Ibinabo of the Guiding Assembly. This is over the church’s intention of honouring, in a special Sunday Thanksgiving service, one Chief Omenka. The latter has just donated two new vans to the church, but Ifemelu considers him a ‘thief’ and a ‘419’ (p. 51) – that is, a shady character. Sister Ibinabo whom Ifemelu says ‘was a person who denied that things were as they were’ (p. 51), demands that Ifemelu leaves if she is not ready to join the other girls of the church in preparing for the special Thanksgiving Sunday. On getting home from the church, however, Adichie states that Ifemelu’s mother pulls her ear twice, telling her: ‘The devil is using you’ (p. 52). And that accusation that the devil is using her means that she has to be delivered from the influence of the same devil. It is actually this belief also that prompts Esther, in the novel, to tell both Zemaye and Ifemelu the kinds of spirit that possess them and the fact that her pastor could deliver them therefrom. For example, while she tells Zemaye that she has the ‘spirit of seductiveness’ (p. 418), to Ifemelu, she says, ‘Ma! I think you have the spirit of husband-repelling. You are too hard, ma, you will not find a husband. But my pastor can destroy that spirit’ (p. 419).
Evangelism
In worldwide Pentecostalism, it is the women, more than the men, who are and have been at the vanguard of evangelism. 43 They do this not out of compulsion, but with a certain sense of freedom and zeal. This is to the extent that Cox notes that without women, ‘Pentecostalism would probably have died out long ago’. 44 In Nigerian and wider African Pentecostalism, the story is not different. Women still lead the way. 45 They employ various means and methods: personal witnessing to their faith in their daily activities, house to house evangelism; distribution of tracts in market places and other centres within their respective communities, 46 and early morning ministrations. Recently, there has equally been a massive utilization of the new digital media such as the Internet, mobile phones and social media.
In the novel, the above scenario also holds. It is the women who are seen engaging in evangelism. For instance, it is Mrs. Ojo’s evangelistic zeal that sees to the conversion of Ifemelu’s mother from Catholicism to Pentecostalism. As Ifemelu’s mother tells her: ‘Mrs Ojo ministered to me this afternoon during the children’s break and I received Christ’ (p. 41). Again, the receptionist at the office of Zoe Magazine, Esther, is seen in many places in the novel, inviting others to her church. Adichie presents the following encounter between this Esther and Ifemelu: ‘Will you come this Sunday, ma? My pastor is a powerful man of God..’.. ‘Why do you think I need to come to your church, Esther?’ ‘You will like it, ma. It is a spirit-filled church’ (p. 401). Zemaye also reveals Esther’s insistent invitation for her to come to her church (p. 418).
Membership
One of the interesting things about Nigerian Pentecostal churches is that the women outnumber the men. 47 This is also the way it is in many places in the world. 48 They also actively participate more than the men in most church activities. This lends credence not only to Martin’s observation that Pentecostalism is a ‘women’s movement’, 49 but also to Brusco’s that it is a ‘female collective action’. 50
Nigerian Women’s membership of these Pentecostal churches is attributable to a good number of factors. For one, there is the issue of the liveliness of Pentecostal liturgies. 51 Again, there is the fact that it gives them, just like the youths, greater opportunity to express themselves, and assume, as it were, some leadership positions. Similarly, the issue of marriage has been pointed out as another factor: Joining these churches helps them, especially, the married ones, to manage problematic relations with their husbands. 52 For single young women, it simply helps a good number of them to find husbands! 53 This is not to underestimate, of course, the obvious spiritual fulfilment, upwards mobility (thanks to Pentecostalism’s emphasis on prosperity gospel), and the sense of community, that some of the women get by joining these churches.
In the novel, Adichie captures the above picture of and about women. Of the characters mentioned in the novel as attending Pentecostal churches, the majority are women: Ifemelu’s mother; Mrs. Ojo; Kosi; Ifemelu; Ranyinudo; Esther; Sister Ibinabo; Christie, as well as the other young ladies doing Sunday Work with Sister Ibinabo (pp. 49–50). This is against the mention of only four men: Pastor Gideon; Kosi’s pastor, Esther’s pastor; and Chief Omenka.
On the issue of marriage being one of the reasons pushing most of women to the Pentecostal churches, Adichie equally has something to say. It is said that some truths, especially, the uncomfortable ones, are often told by way of jokes. In teasing Esther and her compulsive fasting, Zemaye says: ‘You know she’s [Esther’s] always fasting. She will fast and fast until God gives her a husband’ (p. 416). There is also the case of the character, Ranyinudo. She attends a Pentecostal church where she is an usher. She confesses her willingness to marry (p. 389), even if in the meantime, she is ‘dating a married chief executive who bought her business-class tickets to London’ (p. 389). Equally, Adichie points out Obinze’s regrets on discovering that his wife’s church, House of David, has a special prayer for keeping one’s husband: ‘Later, when he [Obinze] found out that the House of David had a special prayer for Keeping Your Husband, he felt unsettled’ (p. 35).
Leadership
While, as pointed out above, the greater number of Nigerian Pentecostals are women, and while the greatest number of them participate more than men in church activities, the leadership of Pentecostal churches in Nigeria, however, are mostly male. 54 Many Pentecostal women are not made leaders and pastors just because they are: women! This is often a reflection of at least two realities:
The situation in the New Testament where it is a man, rather than a woman, that Jesus, a man, and the Son of God, handed over the leadership of his Church (Mt. 16.18-19). This is not oblivious of the fact that it is to a woman, rather than a man, that he appeared first after his resurrection (Jn 20.11-18). The situation here is often made more compelling following the often-peculiar interpretations that are given to some Pauline passages in the Bible: 1 Cor. 11.7-10; 1 Cor. 14.34-35; 1 Tim. 2.11-12; and Eph. 5.22-24, that tend to ‘restrict and discredit women’s leadership in the Church and in Christian culture’. 55 This is often done in neglect of such other Pauline passages as Gal. 3.26-28 and 1 Cor. 12.13, that are inclusive of women.
The situation in the wider Nigerian culture and society, and, indeed, the traditional Nigerian and African society is patriarchal. It is a man’s world. In many places, there is a patrilineal system. But even in those areas that operate a certain kind of matrilineal system, it is the still the man who holds the aces. 56 This is evident, among others, in the reality of male gender preference and the inability of most Nigerian women to inherit either their fathers’ or husbands’ property. Like many elements of the Nigerian/African culture and worldview, 57 this patriarchy is easily appropriated and integrated with the Pentecostal Christian reality. Hence, the emergence of a new wine of Pentecostal patriarchy in the old wine skin of traditional Nigerian/African patriarchy. This is all the more significant when cognizance is made of the fact that Pentecostalism, despite being a global reality, easily takes on the context of its followers. 58 Little wonder that, it has recently come to be understood as a ‘glocal’ phenomenon. 59
In the novel, Adichie depicts this as well. All the three pastors mentioned in the novel – Pastor Gideon, Kosi’s pastor, and Esther’s pastor – are men. Of Sister Ibinabo, the powerful member of the Guiding Assembly, of whom, it is said that Pastor Gideon did whatever she asked, Adichie notes that she ‘could not be pastor because she was a woman’ (p. 50).
The same issue of leadership of Nigerian Pentecostal churches is manifested in the area of preaching. More often than not, it is the men who are given the greater opportunity to preach, especially, during the main services. This is also shown in the novel. In the two instances of preaching in the novel, only Pastor Gideon (p. 44) and Kosi’s pastor (p. 462) are involved. Sometimes, when women are given opportunities at all, they are usually for smaller groups like women’s meeting, fellowship or gathering. This could account for the leadership of Sister Ibinabo of the girls that participate in Sunday Work with her (pp. 50–51).
Between Women in Neo-Pentecostal Churches in Adichie’s Americanah and the Mainline Churches in Nigeria Today
The mainline churches in Nigeria are the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Baptist, Lutheran, Presbyterian and Methodist, churches. Here, however, the focus is on the Catholic Church. The latter boasts today a population of 20 million, and it is expected to reach 47 million by the year 2050. 60 It was in the nineteenth century that it was founded by two French-born missionary organizations, the Society of African Mission, and the Congregation of the Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost Fathers). This was after earlier attempts by the Portuguese mission of the fifteenth-seventeenth century (1472–1621) and then, the Spanish and Italian Capuchin missions of the seventeenth-eighteenth (1622–1717), had failed. 61
The greater percentage of the aforesaid population of Catholics in Nigeria – just like in the Pentecostal churches in Adichie – is made of women, and, of course, youths. 62 Again, like the situation in the Pentecostal churches in Adichie, Catholic women prepare for, attend and participate more than men in liturgical activities. This is to the extent that Okure observes: ‘Often one wonders whether there would be certain celebrations and liturgical gatherings at all if women were absent, especially where in a congregation that celebrates daily mass, the only male in the congregation may be the officiating priest or small boys who serve at the altar’. 63 It is equally the same in the family, which, by the way, is the domestic church. 64 Here, the same women, like their Pentecostal counterparts, are at the vanguard of matters spiritual and often, are the ones who bring their husbands, and indeed, their entire household, to the church.
However, on the issue of leadership, the table, just like in the Pentecostal churches, is somewhat turned: the smaller number of men often leads the said greater number of women, who are also often excluded from decision-making positions. Granted, access to ministerial priesthood is closed to women in the Catholic Church in Nigeria, as elsewhere. 65 But even in those areas in the liturgy in which they are allowed to function by the Universal Church, the Catholic Church in Nigeria has not always given them, or, indeed, the entire laity, complete latitude. 66 This is essentially evident in the case of their being, in parishes and dioceses, extraordinary ministers of the Eucharist. Many reasons are often given as to why they should not. However, the most prominent is that they are ritually unclean to handle something as holy and sacred as the body and blood of Christ. 67
Of course, the foregoing does not mean that there are no women in the Catholic Church in Nigeria today who are, for instance, catechists, lectors, choir mistresses, marriage counsellors, retreatants, pastoral council vice chairpersons, teachers in seminaries and Catholic universities, among others. However, the fact is that when they are placed side by side with their Pentecostal counterparts, it is obvious that the latter have, in their own liturgy, and, indeed, in the general administration of their churches, much more access to leadership positions. And this access to leadership positions is made possible in the first place by their being founders of some of the Pentecostal churches. Mwaura regards this as ‘the ultimate act of religious independency and self-determination’. 68 And here, one can cite the case of Helen Ukpabio, the founder of Liberty Gospel Church, with headquarters in Calabar, as well as that of Dorcas Olayinka, the founder of Agbala Daniel Church, with headquarters in Ibadan.
Equally, access to leadership positions by Pentecostal women in Nigeria is also possible by their being pastors’ wives, otherwise, ‘First Ladies’. The latter, as evidence of the influence they wield, are known to have often taken over their husbands’ churches at their death. This is the case, especially, of the now Archbishop Margaret Idahosa, the wife of the late Archbishop Benson Idahosa, the founder of Church of God Mission International, Benin-City. There is also the case of Nkechi Anayo-Iloputaife, the wife of the late Bishop Hayford Anayo-Iloputaife, the founder of the Victory Christian Church, Lagos. More recently, as well, the case of Evelyn Joshua, the wife of Prophet Temitope Balogun Joshua, popularly known as TB Joshua, the founder of Synagogue Church of All Nations (SCOAN), Lagos, made the news. At the death of her husband in June 2021, she became the new leader of the church. 69 This, however, was not without opposition from some aggrieved members of the Church. 70
Similarly, there is another category of women in Nigerian Pentecostalism who are neither founders nor pastors’ wives, but who also exercise tremendous influence because of their charismatic gifts. In Kalu’s four-fold typology of women found in Pentecostal churches: founders, sisters, first ladies [pastors’ wives], and jezebels,
71
these women could be likened to the ‘sisters’. In the novel, the character, Sister Ibinabo, is created in the image and likeness of such ‘sisters’. She is respected for her spiritual powers and charismatic gifts, but could not become a pastor because of her gender: Sister Ibinabo was powerful, and because she pretended to wear her power lightly, it only made her more so. The pastor [Pastor Gideon], it was said, did whatever she asked him. It was not clear why; some said she had started the church with him, others that she knew a terrible secret from his past, still others that she simply had more spiritual power than he did but could not be pastor because she was a woman. She could prevent pastoral approval of a marriage, if she wanted to. She knew everyone and everything and she seemed to be everywhere at the same time . . . The mothers were in reverent awe of her; they brought her small presents, they eagerly handed their daughters to her for Sunday Work . . . She was asked to talk to troubled and troublesome girls. Some mothers asked if their daughters could live with her, in the flat behind the church. (p. 50)
It is never a coincidence, therefore, that she, Sister Ibinabo, is the only character in the novel that is called ‘sister’ in this special sense. However, if she could not become a pastor because of her being a woman, today in Nigeria, some Pentecostal women, despite not being founders, pastors’ wives, or even ‘sisters’, have been appointed pastors of their churches. This is particularly the case of the Redeemed Christian Church of God and, similar churches. Here, some women who are parish and area pastors function in ritual setting, especially, in the administration of the Holy Communion, and thus have the opportunity, like the men, to move to the top of the church hierarchy. 72
In all, therefore, it could be said that it is these Pentecostal women in Nigeria, more than their Catholic counterparts, who have taken the somewhat improved gender and power relations seen, for instance, in the African Initiated/Independent churches, to a greater level. 73 By so doing, they have recaptured more than any other the ritual and religious functions of women in traditional African religion prior to the advent of missionary Christianity in Nigeria. 74
Moreover, these Nigerian Pentecostal women are often better equipped to navigate the patriarchy of the wider Nigerian society and culture. This is mostly evident in many of their families. Here, thanks to Pentecostalism, they have witnessed a certain ‘domestication’ of their Pentecostal husbands. The latter, while still the undisputed heads of their families, tend to become much more involved and responsible in the upkeep of their families. They are also more considerate and less ‘male-chauvinistic’ in the expression of the powers that patriarchy of the wider Nigerian society and culture confer on them. 75 Hence, the emergence of a kind of soft patriarchy, 76 that eventuates in better emotional and economic wellbeing of these Pentecostal women.
However, it is not superfluous to note that a certain qualification is in order in the consideration of the aforesaid access to leadership that Pentecostalism often offers to Nigerian women. This is because in some churches the access tends to favour married women over single [unmarried] women. The latter, often nicknamed ‘Jezebels’, are most of the times demonized, viewed with suspicion, and accused of harbouring an evil agenda. This agenda includes, among others, the snatching of other women’s husbands, and the overall seduction of the male members of their churches, including pastors/men of God. 77 That is why excessive attention is sometimes paid to how they dress and what they wear to church. It is, therefore, along this line that a better understanding may be made, in the novel, of the following words of Sister Ibinabo to Christie, one of the girls doing Sunday work with her at the Guiding Assembly: ‘I saw you wearing tight trousers last Saturday . . . Any girl that wears tight trousers wants to commit the sin of temptation’ (p. 50). Hence, Hackett concludes: ‘There are very ambivalent attitudes towards women [in Nigerian Pentecostalism] – at one level they may enjoy greater participation and leadership opportunities in God’s army, at another level, they are frequently stigmatized and demonized’. 78
Conclusion
The interest of the paper has been to look at the status of women in Nigerian Pentecostalism as captured by Adichie in her novel, Americanah. It is found that women in Pentecostal churches are more in number than the men; participate more actively than the men in church activities, as well as being more than the men at the vanguard of things of the Spirit. But the leadership of the same Pentecostal churches, however, remains almost exclusively with the men. The paper argues that the situation may not be much different from the case of women in the Catholic Church in Nigeria, even if it is accepted that Pentecostal women have much more access to leadership positions in both the liturgy and general administration of their church. This is due to the exclusion of women from ministerial priesthood in the Catholic Church.
Footnotes
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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