William Twining (1790–1835): The First Accurate Clinical Descriptions of “Tropical Sprue” and Kala-Azar?

Goodeve HH . Memoir of the late W. Twining, Esq. Trans Med Phys Soc Calcutta 1836; 8: 1–41

Lane-Poole S . Twining, William (1790–1835). In: Lee S , Ed. Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1899: vol. 57, pp. 389–90

Balfour A . Some British and American pioneers in tropical medicine and hygiene. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1925; 19: 189–231

Crawford DG , Ed. 974. Twining, William. In: Roll of the Indian Medical Service 1615–1930. London: W Thacker & Co., 1930: 86

Lane-Poole S . Twining, Richard (1749–1824). In: Lee S , Ed. Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1899: vol. 57, pp. 387–9

Mason P . The Men Who Ruled India. London: Jonathan Cape, 1985. Richard Colley, Marquis Wellesley (1760–1842) was an outstanding Governor-General of India (1798–1805); he was the eldest brother of the Duke of Wellington, and extended British influence over two-thirds of India

Twining W . Diseases of the Spleen, particularly … in Bengal, 1828. (See ref. 2)

Twining W . Clinical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of Bengal with the Result of an Inquiry into Their Pathology and Treatment. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1832: 705

Twining W . Clinical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of Bengal, with the Result of an Inquiry into Their Pathology and Treatment (2 vols) (2nd edn). Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1835: 481 438

Twining W . A Practical Account of the Epidemic Cholera, and of the Treatment Requisite in the Various Modifications of that Disease. London: Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1833: 292

Cook GC . Tropical sprue. In: Cox FEG , Ed. The Wellcome Trust Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases. London: Wellcome Trust, 1996: 356–69

Cook GC . History of tropical sprue and coeliac disease. In: Bynum WB , Ed. Gastroenterology in Britain: Historical Essays. London: Wellcome Trust, 1997: 63–80

Begg C . Sprue and spurious dysentery. J R Army Med Corps 1905; 5: 119–31

Begg C . Complications found in chronic cases of sprue. BMJ 1907; ii: 1337–8

Cook GC . Aetiology and pathogenesis of post-infective tropical malabsorption (tropical sprue). Lancet 1984; i: 721–3

Cook GC . Tropical sprue: implications of Manson's concept. J R Coll Physicians 1978; 12: 329–49

Logan JS . Vincent Ketelaer did not describe tropical or non-tropical sprue or coeliac disease in his book De aphthis nostratibus seu Belgarum sprouw. Ulster Med J 1990; 59: 204–5

Cook GC . “Tropical sprue”: some early investigators favoured an infective cause, but was a coccidian protozoan involved? Gut 1997; 40: 428–9

Gibson ME . The identification of kala azar and the discovery of Leishmania donovani. Med Hist 1983; 27: 203–13

Twining W . Observations on diseases of the spleen, particularly on the vascular engorgement of that organ common in Bengal. Trans Med Phys Soc Calcutta 1827; 3: 351–412

Scott HH . A History of Tropical Medicine. London: Edward Arnold, 1939: vol. 2, pp. 1033–6

Castellani A Chalmers AJ . Manual of Tropical Medicine (3rd edn). London: Baillière Tindall and Cox, 1919: 1289–91

Rogers L . Report of an Investigation of the Epidemic of Malarial Fever in Assam, or Kala-azar. Shillong: Assam Secretariat Printing Office, 1897: 223;

Singer C Underwood EA . Leishmaniasis. In: A Short History of Medicine (2nd edn). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962:487–8

Twining W . Some Account of Cretinism and the Institution for Its Cure, on the Abendberg, near Interlachen, in Switzerland. London: John W Parker, 1843: 40

Bayly CA , Ed. The Raj: India and the British 1600–1947. London: National Portrait Gallery, 1990: 432

James L . The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. London: Little, Brown, 1994: 704