Archibald Lang McLean (1885–1922) – Explorer,writer and soldier

Antarctic expedition

In 1911, McLean applied to join Douglas Mawson’s (1882–1958) Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE). Mawson’s original plan was to land a party on Macquarie Island to study the island and to set up a radio station to relay messages from the Antarctic to Australia. This was the first expedition in the Antarctic to have any communication (albeit intermittent) with the outside world. Then he would land three parties to establish winter bases on the Antarctic Continent. If each base sent sledging parties along the coast in both directions during the Antarctic summer, a large length of coastline would be explored and surveyed and then they would be collected by ship in January 1913. Thus, he required three medical officers, one for each planned base. McLean was appointed as Chief Medical Officer and bacteriologist for one year at the main base. The other two doctors were Sydney Evan Jones (1887–1948) and Leslie Whetter (1888–1955). The biologist on the expedition was John Hunter (1888–1964), a medical student who later became the General Secretary of the British Medical Association in Australia and the first General Secretary of the Australian Medical Association.

The expedition sailed to Antarctica aboard the Aurora, under the command of Captain John King Davis (1884–1967). They left Hobart in December 1911, left a party of five men on Macquarie Island and then sailed south to the Antarctic to Adelie Land where they landed in January 1912 at what they named Commonwealth Bay after Australia. Here they built a hut at Cape Denison named for one of their sponsors. The fact that this proved to be one of the windiest parts of the coldest, windiest continent inspired the name of Mawson’s book of the expedition, The Home of the Blizzard. ¹

In the event, sea and ice conditions were such that it was only possible to set up two bases. Jones was medical officer to the Western Base and Whetter stayed with McLean at the main base. Fig 2 shows the positions of the bases. However, McLean acted as the Medical Officer and, with two doctors for a party of 18 explorers, Whetter hardly used his medical skills.

A medical officer on an expedition has several roles. Apart from treating illness and injuries, the most obvious is to maintain the health of the expedition. All the doctors on the expeditions of this era regularly examined and weighed the expedition members. One reason for this was to detect scurvy and beriberi which affected some expeditions (though not the AAE). Most also measured the haemoglobin regularly. This was probably because Frederick Cook (1865–1940), the doctor to the Belgian expedition (1897–1899), had described ‘polar anaemia'. This was a misnomer as there is no evidence that any of the sufferers were anaemic and on expeditions where the haemoglobin was measured, it usually increased during the Antarctic stay. ‘Polar anaemia' was almost certainly beriberi. ² During the AAE’s first year, medical problems were few and were mostly minor injuries and minor degrees of frostbite. Doctors also had to provide dental care and veterinary care for the dogs.

Most of the early expeditions had a major scientific programme and since medical duties were expected to be light in a small group of medically screened young explorers, doctors had other responsibilities and most did their own research or else assisted other scientists. Several doctors investigated the bacteriology of the air, soil, sea and animals of this new continent. ³ McLean also did such bacteriology and was the first to undertake any human bacteriology, in that, as well as investigating the microbiology of seal wounds, he examined pus from infections in expedition members and the changes in normal bacterial flora in the Antarctic over time. He also brought back some live cultures for further study in Australia.

McLean's research was not easy: space was a limitation and, at sea, he had problems with the ship rolling. His incubator ran on kerosene and it was difficult to maintain a constant temperature in the extreme cold. His cultures became contaminated with fungal spores and the gelatin culture media froze and split. For four months he was unable to do gram stains as the boxes containing his stock of bacteriological ‘materials were buried in snow outside the hut and were only accessible on the rare fine days, when they had to be dug out, opened and re-packed'. ⁴

Although the effect of climate and location on health has been of interest since the time of Hippocrates, none of the expedition research programmes mentioned human biology. McLean was the first to try to investigate physiology in the Antarctic. He commented ‘the healthiness of the explorer’s life was proverbial – should one not be in a position to study physiology, immunity and psychology under unique circumstances?' ⁵ However, this aspect of the research seems to have been an afterthought since in McLean’s letter of appointment, less than six weeks before the expedition started, Mawson wrote: ‘It is well for you to discuss matters with Welsh [Professor of Pathology, University of Sydney] and arrange for any particular work you may be able to execute in the special conditions of Antarctica … ’ ⁶ McLean says that ‘specific suggestions were not wanting’. ⁵

While others had measured haemoglobin levels, he was the only doctor to describe his methods and the Australasian expedition seems to have been the only one in which blood pressures were measured. He was the first person to demonstrate reduced hair and nail growth in the Antarctic: this is due to vasoconstriction as a result of the cold. His studies have been replicated since and have shown that the rate of hair and nail growth has increased since 1911, almost certainly because modern bases are warmer than Mawson’s base. He also investigated immunity: he noted that explorers returning to civilization were susceptible to coryza and influenza and that tuberculosis and other diseases ‘made havoc with Esquimaux tribes in contact with more civilized neighbours’ and he wondered if a lowered resistance to infection was caused by polar living itself. In addition, on the expedition there were three whitlows, a dental abscess and a case of herpes zoster (shingles). One whitlow grew staphylococcus aureus which was not present in nose and throat swabs nor in dust cultured in the hut. He felt this organism was latent in the tissues ⁷ and presumably had been re-activated by the cold or some other factor in Antarctica.

To assess immunity, he measured the opsonic index which is the ratio of the number of bacteria destroyed by phagocytes in an individual's blood serum to those of normal serum. By modern standards (and probably even those of the time) much of his research is flawed with very small sample sizes, poor control groups, no use of statistics to show the variability of the results or whether these are significant and very little description of how the accuracy was determined and biases minimised. He recognised these problems himself and, because of them, did not draw any conclusions from his results. ⁸ However, it can be said that he laid the foundations for modern physiological research in the Antarctic ⁹ and subsequent work has shown that Antarctic residency does have effects on the immune system. ¹⁰

Polar psychology has been a major area of research in recent years for the study of the effects of isolation, confinement and the 24-hour darkness of a polar winter, ¹¹ and Antarctic bases have been used as a model for what might happen in a prolonged voyage into space. As noted already, McLean recommended this be studied although the chapter on psychology in his research, though nicely written, is just a description of his own feelings about the continent and lacks analysis and objectivity. ¹²

However, perhaps the most important part of the job of an expedition doctor is to be a good team member. Whether the aim of an expedition is exploration (achieving a goal such as the South Pole) or science, medicine is a supporting activity. Alexander Macklin (1889–1967), one of Shackleton’s surgeons, wrote ‘All members of an expedition must take part in routine duties; they must be prepared to help in the work of the ship, take a trick at the wheel, even to take a turn as “Peggy”, assisting in the galley and washing dishes'. ¹³ McLean did take a full part in the expedition, helping to build the hut and participating in the three-man Eastern Coastal Party that involved man-hauling a sledge for 70 days of exploration.

While McLean was exploring eastwards, Mawson, accompanied by Belgrave Ninnis (1887–1912) and Xavier Mertz (1882–1913), was exploring in another direction using sledges pulled by dogs. Ninnis and a sledge containing most of their food fell into a crevasse on 14 December and Ninnis was killed. Mawson and Mertz started back to the base and because of lack of food were forced to eat their huskies. Both became ill with a mystery illness and Mertz died on 8 January leaving a very ill Mawson to return by himself in one of the greatest survival episodes of Antarctic history. Mawson described this well in the expedition book ¹ and in his diaries. ¹⁴ The illness is now thought to be vitamin A toxicity from eating the liver of the huskies.^15,16 By the time the ship returned in January 1913 to collect the expedition, Mawson’s party had not arrived back and three people, including McLean, went to look for them, building a cairn and leaving food parcels and notes outlining the location with compass directions for the return to base. Mawson found this but was unfortunate to miss the search party by six hours. The ship was forced to leave on 8 February because of the ice conditions but left a party of five, including McLean, to await Mawson’s return. Mawson, physically and psychologically strengthened by the supplies left for him, arrived a few hours after the ship had left and although the news was signalled to the ship, it was unable to return and the party of six had to spend another year in the Antarctic.

Initially, the major medical problem during the second year was Mawson’s illness and he had to be nursed back to health by McLean but later there was a significant problem in that Sidney Jeffreyes (1884–1942), the radio operator, developed what would now be described as paranoid schizophrenia. Dealing with acute psychiatric illness in the confined conditions of an Antarctic base is not easy: he was treated with sleeping draughts. (Telemedicine now has a vital role in providing healthcare in the Antarctic: it is sad to realise that the first radio message from the Antarctic about medical problems was a message to say that Jeffreyes was insane and the first message seeking help was a paranoid radio operator telling the world, in Morse code, that the other five men were all mad.) ¹⁷

In this second year, McLean also took part in a further sledging expedition and in his honour a group of three nunataks (bare rock outcrops protruding through a permanent ice sheet) discovered within the western part of Mertz Glacier were named the McLean Nunataks. He seems to have been well respected. John Hunter said that he was ‘popular with everyone'. Cecil Madigan (1889–1947), the meteorologist, described him as ‘an idealist, the best principled man on the expedition, and the best read. He was full of kindness & sympathy'. ¹⁸ Charles Laseron (1887–1959), another biologist, said that ‘he was extraordinarily keen about all he did, and his enthusiasm led him, not only to attempt everything, but at times to rush things without considering minor detail. He was game to the core, and a badly broken nose, incurred before the inception of the expedition, [sustained while boxing] testified to this'. ¹⁹

On polar expeditions there has been a tradition of producing a newspaper, examples of which are the South Polar Times on Scott’s expeditions and Shackleton’s Aurora Australis. This is done partly to have some activity to fill leisure hours during the 24-hour darkness of the polar winter and for team building but also with a view to publishing it on return to civilisation to defray some of the costs of the expedition. During the second year, Mawson’s expedition produced The Adelie Blizzard with McLean as editor. Some of the writing, including McLean’s editorials, was very good. He produced five editions of this for which he was made a member of the Journalists Association of New South Wales. Ever the optimist, his first editorial compared themselves to Robinson Crusoe and he went on:

… Well! The fact remains that so far from being marooned, in the old sense, we are surrounded with most of the advantages of civilization, and even if there is none of the tinsel of the Comic Opera, we may discover, living in this misguided climate, the vein of humour which has always taught Britishers to laugh at misfortune. The ADELIE BLIZZARD is one outcome of such a desire, and, as such, makes its debut in the field of Polar Literature. ²⁰

The Aurora finally returned on 13 December 1913 and they left ten days later and, after some further surveying and research, reached Adelaide on 26 February 1914.

One of Mawson’s tasks on his return was to produce a book about the expedition, to defray the expenses of the expedition. McLean’s writing had impressed him so Mawson asked him to work with him on this book. Mawson was paid an advance of £1000 out of which McLean was paid £300. ²¹ Mawson got married on 31 March and the following day left on a working honeymoon to England, taking not only his bride but also McLean and Captain Davis. They arrived in England on 3 May. McLean worked full time on the book with the aim of creating a literary masterpiece and this was published by William Heinemann in two volumes in 1915 as The Home of the Blizzard; ¹ the Appendix contained medical reports by both McLean and Jones.^22,23

The First World War

McLean was still in England in August 1914 at the start of the First World War. He had been a member of the Australian Army Reserve forces while a student and joined the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) in November 1914 and was sent to France where he spent 13 months initially as a Regimental Medical Officer with the Black Watch and later at a Casualty Clearing Station. He described these experiences in the Medical Journal of Australia^24–26 and it has been suggested that his writing ranks with the best produced during the First World War. ²⁷ At the same time he was editing the Adelie Blizzard and trying to get this published. William Heinemann offered to publish it but McLean refused this offer as Heinemann was German. ²¹ Two other publishers declined to publish it as they felt that Mawson’s Antarctic Expedition had been overshadowed by Scott’s death and the expected return of Shackleton from his Endurance expedition. Eventually McLean, realising that the Adelie Blizzard was of little significance compared to the problems of the First World War, gave up trying and it remained unpublished until 2010. ²⁰ In 1915 he married an English woman, Eva Yates.

In 1916, McLean suffered a poisoned finger and returned to England where he developed appendicitis and was discharged from the Army. He returned to Australia where he worked for a short time at Gladesville Mental Hospital, Sydney and wrote up his Antarctic research for which he obtained an MD and the University Medal in 1917. He joined the Australian Army Medical Corps (AAMC) in September of that year and in November was heading back to England by ship, spending two weeks in Egypt en route. He arrived in England at the end of January 1918 and, after a short time at the training depot, was a medical officer in England before returning to France at the end of May. During this time he also found time to assist Captain Davis on his book about the expedition. ²⁸ In France he served with two field ambulances and spent time as a Regimental Medical Officer and was mentioned in despatches. The work included not just war injuries and the medical problems of the trenches but also gas attacks. In addition, by 1918 the influenza epidemic that was to sweep Europe after the First World War had already started and was affecting the army in France. In 1919 he was awarded the Military Cross ‘for conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty' at the Battle of Amiens. In the words of the citation

During the attack on 8th August, 1918, east of Villers Bretonneux, near Amiens, he followed the attacking troops with his section, tending and dressing wounded under fire on the way. Almost immediately after the objective had been taken he established his R.A.P. in the village of Warfusee, where he worked continuously under great difficulties. Later, during the advance on the following day, he established his R.A.P. almost on the jumping-off line, where he tended and cared for wounded under heavy artillery fire. His energy and zeal saved many lives. ²⁹

Two months after this battle, he was gassed and returned to London where he was in hospital for nearly three weeks. By the time he had finished convalescing, the war was over and he was appointed an ‘Assistant Collator (medical) Australian War Records section', a role that was acknowledged in the official history of the Australian Army Medical Corps. ³⁰ His appointment to this role may indicate that his health had not recovered enough to return to full duties. In April 1919 he was re-admitted to hospital and about this time was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He returned to Australia in July 1919.

The Home of the Blizzard, now regarded as a classic, sold badly because of the war and the emphasis given to Scott and Shackleton and the final straw occurred when the print works burned down and destroyed the printing plates. Mawson felt that a shortened, one-volume edition would sell better but met resistance from McLean who had invested so much effort into the original and did not want his masterpiece interfered with. However, Mawson went ahead with this but found it difficult to find a publisher and it was not published until 1930. Recent editions of the book ³¹ are of this shorter edition.

McLean returned to Australia in poor health and was appointed Medical Officer in charge of the Red Cross farm at Beelbangera, New South Wales which was opened for the convalescence of servicemen with TB who had recovered enough to do light farm work. ³² He also started to write a book based on his experiences of the war but he died in 1922 at the age of 37 when he had only written five of the planned 13 chapters. Needless to say, these were beautifully written and his friends arranged for these five chapters to be published posthumously in a booklet titled War Vistas ³³ so they could ‘possess one of the last of his irresistible writings'. ³⁴ He had no children. OPEN IN VIEWER