Physician and diplomat in the Ottoman palace: Solomon Ben Nathan Ashkenazi (1520–1602)

Introduction

During the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire gained control over a vast territory. However, it had to establish relationships with many neighboring states due to its need for political engagement within this area. Its dealings with Europe spanned across wide geographical regions and were managed through two major routes: via the Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Europe. Additionally, conducting diplomacy, trade activities, and political negotiations necessitated constant access to timely information about other countries outside their domain of influence. Thus, Ottoman elites needed an extensive understanding of international affairs to maintain their power.^1–3

In the classical era of the Ottoman Empire, extensive efforts were made to gather information and facilitate knowledge exchange. However, obtaining knowledge about external entities was substantially restricted. This led to challenges in executing a sound policy due to a lack of access and an ad hoc nature of Ottoman diplomacy that demanded exceptional expertise. As a result, it became essential for Ottoman statesmen to retain knowledgeable advisors who had proficiency in European languages and some familiarity with Europe; this helped furnish intelligence regarding international affairs. ⁴ Qualified advisors were highly regarded as a dependable source of accurate information in ad hoc diplomacy, particularly with regard to Ottoman-European relations during the sixteenth century. Their expertise in providing diplomatic consultancy and guiding Ottoman elites on the proper application of acquired knowledge proved significant, and among them stood out Jews who played a leading role in this group.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, many knowledgeable Jews left Europe and moved to the Ottoman Empire. This migration brought significant economic, technological, and diplomatic advantages to the Ottoman Empire.^5,6 Most Jewish immigrants received their education from European universities in countries such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany. They traveled extensively throughout different parts of Europe where they worked for some time, enabling them to possess knowledge about its culture and political, military, and economic issues. Involving themselves actively soon after arriving in Ottoman lands, they subsequently became engaged with foreign affairs activities on behalf of Ottomans. ⁷

During the 16th century Ottoman diplomacy, immigrants of Jewish origin who had connections and knowledge about Europe played a crucial role. They served as a valuable source of information and intelligence for the state concerning European affairs. Hans Derschawm, belonging to the Habsburg embassy group, expressed his discontent in 1555 over Jews providing such confidential information to Sultan because he believed it made them traitors and Turkish agents against Christians. ⁸ Similarly, Joseph Nasi settled in Istanbul in 1554 with networks across Europe that enabled him to work as an assistant for the government while offering significant insights on behalf of Ottomans obtained from his spy network collecting favorable data through strategic means.^9–11 Additionally, Don Alvaro Mendes, known as Salomon Aben Yaesh, held an important position in Ottoman-Spain relations. ¹²

While Selim II (1566–1574) and Murad III (1574–1595) were in power, Jews endeavored to create ties with pashas and other prominent figures in the Ottoman Empire as a way of obtaining mansips or official positions. Most of those Jewish physicians attained prominence due to their proficiency in diplomacy rather than through their primary professions; For instance, Solomon Ashkenazi's relative from Vienna enjoyed the backing of İbrahim Pasha.^13,14 It was similarly beneficial for Kanijeli Siyavuş Pasha that Moses Benveniste, an illustrious physician who later served as an agent during diplomatic discussions between Ottoman-Spain had agreed to assist him. ¹⁵ Moreover, Siyavuş Pasha had two Jewish advisors, Abraham and Hami, who offered guidance on political matters. ¹⁶ Rabbi Isaac was also appointed as an advisor to the Vizier Lala Mustafa Pasha, while Elieszer Eskenderi^17,18 and David Passy ¹⁹ served in similar capacities for Governor of Egypt Sinan Pasha, who later became grand vizier three times. The Italian envoy Ottoviano Bon observes that during the reign of Ahmed I (1603–1617), it was customary for state authorities and elites to engage Jewish consultants owing to their effective contribution toward achieving stability in affairs. As confirmed by Bon's account; “virtually all influential Turks have a trusted Jew serving as either advisor or assistant.” In this regard, Jews often provided support services toward ensuring security within their operations. ²⁰

Solomon Ben Nathan Ashkenazi

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Jewish physicians gained significant power in Ottoman Istanbul, particularly in the palace.^21,22 This is evident from Mevâcib^23,24 registers of that time which indicate a rise in the numbers of Jewish physicians within the palace even surpassing those of Muslim physicians.^25–27 These Ottoman Jewish physicians not only practiced medicine but also actively engaged in diplomatic activities by using their professional skills to acquire influential positions. Prominent examples include Yakub Pasha^28–30 and Moses Hamon,^31,32 who initially entered into service due to their medical expertise but subsequently were drawn into public affairs as part of diplomatic missions enabled by education and social status attained through mastery over this profession. Solomon Ashkenazi is another exemplar where his earlier social status as a physician led him toward developing connections among Ottoman administrators, ultimately leading to active involvement with matters related more closely involving international diplomacy—at times being identified primarily as a diplomat-physician due to his prominent position as an Ottoman Jew practicing medicine at that particular juncture.

Solomon Ashkenazi, also referred to as Alamanoghlu/Son of a German^33–36 in Ottoman literature, was the offspring of Nathan Ashkenazi and came into this world in Udine in 1520. He comes from a German Jewish family with family members living across various cities of Venetian Republic. After completing his medical studies at Italy's University of Padua, he embarked on an expedition throughout Europe involving trips to France, Germany, and Moscow; however, he spent considerable time residing in Poland. ³⁷ While stationed at Kraków city palace under King Sigismund Augustus II employment as a physician enabled him to establish key connections before migrating to Istanbul in 1564. ³⁸ Ashkenazi's exceptional background and diverse experiences rendered him a suitable mediator between Ottoman officials and European envoys. He was born in Udine, educated with connections in Padua, proficient in European politics and languages, and had previously worked in Kraków before eventually settling down in Istanbul.^39,40 In addition to his medical proficiency, Ashkenazi displayed a profound interest in diplomacy which significantly contributed toward the enhancement of relations among Selim II-Murad III's reign era Ottomans with Spain, Venice, and Poland. By being selected as Sultan's physician, he earned immense trust while serving as a diplomatic counselor, as well. This remarkable physician-diplomat passed away at 82 years old, leaving behind an eminent legacy.

Ashkenazi joined the Venetian embassy upon arriving in Istanbul due to his citizenship. Along with assisting various European ambassadors stationed in Istanbul, he also provided service for two Venetian Balyos—Vittorio Bragadin (1564–1566) and Giacomo Soranzo (1566–1568). Nevertheless, it was his association with Marcantonio Barbaro that greatly influenced Ashkenazi's diplomatic career while serving as a Venetian ambassador between 1568 and 1572 in Istanbul. This connection led him into contact with Sokollu Mehmet Pasha and eventually got entangled in Ottoman diplomacy affairs. Upon his appointment as an agent to normalize Ottoman-Venetian relations and conduct peace negotiations, Ashkenazi came into the focus of Ottoman authorities. This occurred after Venetian Balyos Marcantonio Barbaro's arrest following the Ottoman Empire's Cyprus campaign between 1571 and 1572. Ashkenazi established a network with high-ranking officials in the palace, showcasing his abilities which led him to be noticed by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. He was named advisor and physician to Sultan Selim II^41–43 due to Sokullu's recognition of Ashkenazi's potential to restore diplomatic channels between Ottomans and Venetians. ⁴⁴

Ashkenazi's involvement in the negotiations between Sokollu and Barbaro, to repair relations between the Ottoman Empire and Venice that had deteriorated due to conflicts during the Cyprus War, has been discreetly acknowledged. Despite their ongoing disputes throughout battles such as Lepanto Wars, it was Venetian interests within Levant trade coupled with aims of weakening Spain—a mutual enemy shared by both parties—that prompted them to eventually resolve matters collaboratively. The signed agreement of 1573 transferred authority over Cyprus Island from Venice to the Ottomans while committing Venice to making annual payments summing 300 thousand ducats since Suleiman the Magnificent's reign (1520–1566). ⁴⁵ According to research conducted on this topic by historians and sources cited about subsequent events show Ashkenazi played an influential role in reaching this agreement.^46–48 Sokollu Mehmed Pasha dispatched Ashkenazi and translator Avram to Venice to improve the strained Ottoman-Venetian relations.^49–51 Following the negotiations, Ashkenazi played a crucial role in the signing of an ahitname, or treaty, that contained seven articles aimed at easing tensions between the Ottomans and the Venetians. This diplomatic success was largely attributed to Ashkenazi's efforts and abilities in negotiating with the Venetians.^52,53

After returning from Venice, Ashkenazi played an important role in Ottoman political and diplomatic affairs. His triumphant return from Venice marked the beginning of his golden age. Ashkenazi's political power led sources of the time to depict him as a kingmaker. The main reason for this was his role in selecting the Polish king after the death of Sigismund II in 1572. The dissolution of the Lublin Union following Sigismund II's death became an international problem. The Ottomans, one of the main powers in the region, supported Henry de Valois (later the King of France) against the Moscow and Habsburg candidates.^54,55 Ashkenazi, who was Sigismund II's physician and knowledgeable about the political situation in Poland, became prominent in this case. Therefore, Sokollu worked with Ashkenazi to put the candidate he supported on the throne. Traveler Gerlach describes the situation as follows: “Pasha (Sokollu Mehmet Pasha) trusts physician Solomon very much. In his dealings with France, Venice, Poland, and Hungary, Solomon is his closest adviser.” ⁵⁶ Gerlach also describes Ashkenazi's role in diplomacy and his relationship with Sokollu: “All the ambassadors use Dr Solomon as an intermediary for their problems with the Pasha (Sokullu). For example, he helped the king of France (Charles IX) to place his brother (Henry de Valois) on the Polish throne. The peace treaty with the Venetians was accomplished through Solomon. Again, he mediates in the problems that my esteemed master has to deal with the pasha.” ⁵⁷ As a result of Ottoman politics and Ashkenazi's efforts, Henry de Valois ascended to the Polish throne. ⁵⁸ In a letter sent to him by Ashkenazi after his accession, he used the phrase “I am responsible for all the policies that were effective in your election as king.” ⁵⁹ Although Henri de Valois remained on the Polish throne for a short time due to the death of King Charles IX of France, Ashkenazi's role in Sokollu's foreign policy is important to us. After Valois returned to the French throne, the Ottomans appointed Transylvanian prince Stephen Bathory to the Polish throne. Ashkenazi, who maintained a secret relationship with Bathory, persuaded Anna Jagiellon, Sigismund II's wife, to marry him. Thus, with the Ottoman-Polish agreement signed in 1577, a partnership in favor of the Ottomans was formed in Central Europe against the Habsburgs and Moscow.^60–62

After Sokollu's death, Ashkenazi's influence in Ottoman diplomacy and politics diminished, but it continued. He remained the favorite of all the pashas. Following Sokollu's death, he showed loyalty to Ferhad Pasha, one of the Grand Viziers of Sultan Murad III, and eventually became subservient to Damat Ibrahim Pasha, the governor of Istanbul. Sources explicitly state that Ashkenazi played an active role in the rivalry between Ferhad, Sinan, and Ibrahim Pashas and took significant responsibility for Ferhad Pasha's dismissal. Indeed, Aşkenazi's ability to establish connections with important figures of the time and find a place in the network of relationships in Ottoman diplomacy was a significant factor in his prominent role. With the help of Ester Kira and Valide Sultan, Ashkenazi strengthened his position in the palace.^63,64

Sultan Murad was ill from a young age and, therefore, needed doctors to find a cure for him. Ashkenazi was one of these doctors.^65,66 He participated in the treatments of Sultan Murad and witnessed his final moments. In his Italian report sent to the English envoy Barton, Ashkenazi explains the reason for Sultan's death as follows: “Sultan Murad died on January 6, 1595. The cause of death was kidney stones and a tumor. He refused medication, so ice therapy was applied, which led to him catching a cold.” ⁶⁷ His diagnosis of the cause of the Sultan's death demonstrates his close involvement with the Sultan's illness.

Ashkenazi died in 1602, leaving behind three sons, Nathan, Samuel, and Obidiah. Like his father, his son Nathan continued to work as a diplomat and physician in the Ottoman palace after completing his education in Venice. ⁶⁸

Conclusion

Notably, Jewish physicians played a significant role in the domains of medicine and diplomacy during the Ottoman era. Their exceptional medical knowledge commanded great reverence, leading them to be called court physicians for not only the sultans but also other members of high-ranking Ottomans. Moreover, owing to their extensive proficiency with European languages and cultures, they held substantial worth in supporting diplomatic activities within the empire. Adding further prominence are numerous Jewish physicians who operated as diplomats underlining their versatility and multifaceted capabilities while serving in various roles across different spheres of activity at that time. Solomon Ashkenazi was a prominent Jewish physician who started his career in medicine and later became a diplomat in the Ottoman Empire. While our knowledge of his medical expertise is limited, it is understood that he was highly skilled and served as a physician to the sultans and pashas in both the Polish and Ottoman palaces. His career in the medical field considerably contributed to his ascent in diplomatic affairs, as his expertise in medicine enabled him to practice diplomacy simultaneously. Since he was born and educated in Europe, Ashkenazi capitalized on this advantage by bridging the cultural divide between European nations and Ottoman authorities. His appointment as a diplomat for prominent figures like Sokollu Mehmet Pasha illustrates how influential Jewish physicians were within Ottoman political circles. Henceforth, delving into the careers of other Jewish physicians involved with Ottoman diplomacy would furnish greater comprehension regarding their function concerning intercultural relations between Ottomans and Europeans or social–political life within the empire.