Dr Kadambini Bose Ganguly (1861–1923): First Indian woman to practise Western medicine in India

Introduction

In nineteenth-century British India, set against a background of colonial rule, failure of the First War of Independence, and the emergence of the reform movement, life even for educated females was problematical. However influenced by British education, certain enlightened women envisaged challenging the social hierarchy and gender inequality and confronting the existing Indian ideology that allotted household chores to women and denied them education.

In 1836, a report drafted by William Adams (1786–1881) on the State of Education in Bengal stated that nearly every Bengali woman was illiterate, irrespective of her socio-economic status. Some women were able to receive minimal education through the Zenana, a private tutor who taught women how to read, write and manage minor accounts. The report attributed the low literacy rate to the belief that a woman's education could bring about her widowhood or make her an unfaithful spouse. This belief, indeed, covered the insecurities of the dominant section of society, namely men. ¹

The idea of education for women did not come easily and required involvement of the reformist societies as well as the British Raj. The Brahmo Samaj (formerly called the Brahmo Sabha), established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) in 1828 in Calcutta, was one such reformist organisation which challenged orthodox Hindu ideology and promoted equal rights for men and women. It was able to uproot the practice of sati, the sacrifice of a widow in her husband's funeral pyre, help introduce the Widow Remarriage Act (1856), and set the marriageable age for girls at 14 years. The educator and reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) opened schools for girls. ² However, the Brahmos, the members of the Brahmo Samaj, differed in their opinions about designing a curriculum for women, the minority radicals had the vision of no separate curriculum, while the majority, including Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–1884), an important figure of the Brahmo Samaj, argued for a distinct syllabus that nurtured women to become better wives for the “bhadralok”s, i.e., the gentlemen, and serve as educated mothers for the future generations. ³ Michael Madhusudan Dutta (1824–1873), a poet and prominent figure of the Bengali Renaissance, argued that education of women was required for not just personal advancement, but for the development of the society as a whole. In 1842, he wrote:

Many people have been unable to have given up their belief in the existence of ghosts, notwithstanding the strong remonstrance of reason and the evidence of Science, because the impression left on the mind by the idle tale heard or recited in the nursery could not be effaced! It is needless to dwell upon the numerous benefits a child may derive from an educated nurse. In a country like India, where the nurseship (if I may so call, the office of a nurse) generally devolves on the mother, the importance of educating the females…it is very great; for unless they are enlightened, they spread the infection of their ignorance in the minds of those they bring up. Extensive dissemination of knowledge among women is the surest way that leads a nation to civilization and refinement.

He reiterated the idea that the purpose of having knowledgeable women was to have a better life partner and an educated mother who would raise proficient children. He pointed to the need for graceful and elegant women, the “bhadramahila”s. This idea was embraced by many families and thus, many consented to the education of their girls. ¹

Besides the need for reforms in female education, thoughts on the need for improvement in the medical system were also escalating. British doctors condemned traditional Indian medicine which advocated an imbalance in humours as the cause of diseases, rather than the pathology of the organs. Further, they firmly believed in the advancements made by Western medicine in vaccines, instruments and other interventions. To address the criticisms raised by British doctors of traditional medicine practices (Ayurveda and Arabic), a committee was appointed by the British Governor-General of Bengal, Lord William Bentinck (1774–1839). The idea was partly based on his observation of the poor medical services in the Bengali population and the need for medical education. The committee, along with Alexander Duff (1806–1878), a Scottish missionary, who emphasised the need for the use of English in Western education in India, in 1835 drafted a report which recommended abolishing the Native Medical Institution and the establishing of the Calcutta Medical College to provide medical education in English.^4,5 The college was created that same year, however, but no female medical students were admitted for many years.

Essentially, during British rule, white soldiers faced health problems from the country's climate and diseases and from the lack of acceptance of traditional Indian medicine. Of note, was that the incidence that sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were escalating amongst the servicemen. Many of the Indian women who contracted an STD needed treatment but the ‘purdah’ system created a barrier as females were restricted from interacting with male doctors. Hence there was a definite need for female doctors, but the question was how could this be provided? ⁶ Dr Edward Green Balfour (1813–1889), then Principal and Surgeon of Madras Medical College, was the first to consider the idea of female medical education. In 1875, the Madras Medical College admitted four European or Anglo-Indian female students. However, there was no Indian female student. ⁷

Dr Kadambini Ganguly (neé Kadambini Basu) (Figure 1), BA, GBMC, LRCPE, LRCSE, LRFPSG was one of the two first Indian women graduates in British India and the first Indian female to graduate in and practise Western Medicine in India. Dr Ganguly was a strong advocate for female education, health services for women, childcare for working mothers, an age bar for sexual consent, as well as the involvement of women in political societies. The 1813 Charter Act had allowed the East India Company to organise education in the Indian subcontinent. Missionaries were brought in who regarded the Indian culture as barbaric and encouraged schools that propagated Christianity, many of which were subsidised by the British Raj.^8,9 As a result, Christian families had better access to education than women of other religions. This all makes Kadambini's story more remarkable than that of Chandramukhi Bose (1860–1944), a Christian girl who along with Kadambini Ganguly became the first two Indian female graduates in India.

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Figure 1.

Dr Kadambini Bose Ganguly, BA, GBMC, LRCPE, LRCSE LRFPSG (1861–1923).

Early life and education

Kadambini was born on 18th July 1861 in Bhagalpur, Bengal Presidency, British India (present-day Bihar, India), to a Bengali Brahman family, a Hindu upper-caste (the ‘advantaged’ class) from the Bangla-speaking region. Not only was her birth in the era of Hindu reformation an asset to her, but also her father was the headmaster of a Bhagalpur School. Additionally, he served as an important member of the Brahmo Samaj and the co-founder of the Bhagalpur Mahila Samiti, a leading organisation for the rights of women in India. Her father permitted Kadambini to attend primary school, which was exceptional for the time, especially in the rural area of Bhagalpur.^1,10

When she was 14 years old, her father sent her to a girls’ boarding school, Banga Mahila Vidyalaya in Calcutta (which later joined with Bethune College), and girls were taught all the subjects on the curriculum. This was in contrast to the generally held belief that science and mathematics could adversely affect women's minds. This school was under the guidance of Annette Akryod (1842–1929) and Dwarkanath Ganguly (1844–1898), an educator and social reformer and a radical member of the Brahmo Samaj. Furthermore, the school promoted the adoption of Western manners and the usage of the English language. Monomohan Ghosh (1900–1950), who was Kadambini's cousin, was also a member of the Brahmo Samaj, and the first practising Indian barrister. He was an advocate of female education, and helped Dwarkanath and Annette to establish the school. Kadambini studied at the Banga Mahila Vidyalaya with four other girls from the Brahmo families— Sarala Das (1861–1946), who became the wife of Prasanna Kumar Ray (1849–1932) and initiated the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ School, Abala Das (1865–1951), who became the wife of the scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937) and started the Brahmo Girls’ School, Swarnaprabha Bose, Jagadish Chandra Bose's sister, and Binodmani Ghosh, Manmohan Ghosh's sister.^1,11–13 The college was rooted in secularism rather than Christianity, ¹⁴ which could be one of the reasons why Kadambini did not convert to Christianity.

In 1877, because of Dwarkanath's efforts, Kadambini and Sarala were considered eligible by Sir Arthur Hobbhouse (1819–1904), the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University, to appear for the entrance examination to Calcutta University, but at a separate centre. This was an important milestone in women's education since at that time no other British Universities admitted women. While Sarala Das dropped out before taking her examination, because of marriage, Kadambini passed the examination in the second division. The Vice-Chancellor noted that Kadambini ‘the young lady has passed the entrance exam with great credit’ during a meeting of the Senate at the Calcutta University, in 1879. Reflecting on her marks, he added she had ‘very high marks in Bengali, tolerable marks in History and even in Science – a subject which is usually not considered congenial to the female intellect’.^1,3 Subsequently, Kadambini joined the Fine Arts course and graduated with a BA (Bachelor of Arts). Qualifying in 1882, Kadambini and Chandramukhi Bose became the first two Indian female graduates in India.^10,13,15

Marriage and breaking barriers in medical education

After graduation, in 1883, 21-year-old Kadambini Basu married 39-year-old Dwarkanath Ganguly, her mentor from Bethune College, and a widower with six children and the marriage was based on mutual love, respect and common goals.^1,3,15 She then planned to study medicine, apparently because she had been inspired by a female Ayurvedic provider who had saved her paternal grandmother from an illness that other medical practitioners were not able to treat. ¹⁶

With the goal to study medicine, Kadambini decided to pursue Western medicine where her BA degree was sufficient for her to get admission. ³ However, she had difficulties almost immediately. In 1882, Abala Das (1865–1951) and Ellen Barbara d’Abrew (1863–1932) passed the entrance examination for admission to Calcutta Medical College, but were denied admission based on their gender. They then enrolled to study Western medicine at the Madras Medical College. Unfortunately, Abala became ill before the declaration of the final examination result and thus never learned the outcome.^7,17 Kadambini, along with the support of her husband, made strenuous efforts to gain admission to the Medical College in Calcutta (Figure 2), but faced resistance from the male faculty of the college. ¹⁸ However, with the continuing efforts from her husband along with help from the Brahmo activists, the Lieutenant Governor Sir River Thompson (1829–1890) passed a resolution in June 1883 to permit the admission of female students at the Calcutta Medical College.^1,7 Kadambini then became the first female medical student at the Calcutta Medical College. ¹⁹ She received a scholarship worth Rs (Indian Rupees) 20/- per month, from the Dufferin Fund, for her education from the second year. ³

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Figure 2.

Medical College, Kolkata (current state).

However, Kadambini still had to face considerable opposition from the College staff. Real difficulty arose, when she was to stand before the Governing Body of the college. The majority of the faculty were against education for women, and thought that providing medical education to women could disrupt the social culture of India. She encountered criticisms from Dr Rajendra Chandra (1833–1895), a Brigade surgeon and lieutenant-colonel in the Indian army and senior faculty member at the college, who along with other staff members, were completely opposed to women's education, especially medical education, ⁷ Indeed they even went as far as to trick Kadambini's father into withdrawing his consent for her to study medicine. However she persevered and after efforts from herself, her husband Dwarkanath Ganguly, and the support of the Principal, Dr JM Coats (1832–1895), she was admitted to the MBBS course alongside male students in the same classroom. Kadambini was undeterred, she arranged to learn dissection from a DOM (a subcaste amongst Bengali Hindus who worked in the crematoria and was also involved in postmortems) and she then went on to impress the faculty staff at her practical anatomy examination. Over her five years as a medical student, Kadambini proved that she was both capable and well-trained, and ready to start a career as a physician. She was top in the medicine examination, but was deliberately failed by one mark, by Dr Chandra, who was opposed to the idea of female physicians and he made her repeat the year. She was again failed next year, even though the majority of the faculty staff, including even the Principal, were against the decision of her deferment. But, after her husband complained, and with the support of Dr Coats, Kadambini was allowed to speak to the board, which had been established to review her examination papers. Fortunately, she managed to convince the board and they reversed the decision. ³ However, the Medical College would not provide Kadambini with the Bachelor of Medicine (MB) degree, instead in 1866 they granted her the degree of Graduate of Bengal Medical College (GBMC). ⁸

Kadambini had been an extraordinary medical student, she was even praised by the then Vicereine of India, Lady Dufferin (1843–1936), for her relentless efforts to save patients (Army personnel) in the Barrackpore Cantonment during her MB course. Her efforts in changing society's minds towards women's rights directly influenced many other young women such as the sisters Bidumukhi and Bidhusini of Chandramukhi Bose. ⁹

Before Kadambini, Anandibai Joshi (1865–1887), who belonged to a Maharashtrian (i.e., belonging to the region of Maharashtra, India) family, became the first Indian female to graduate in Western medicine, but she qualified in the United States of America (USA). Unlike Kadambini, Anandibai was married at the age of nine years, to a widower. Anandibai decided to pursue medicine when her infant died within ten days of birth and because of the stigma that prevented her from receiving medical treatment. With the support of her husband, she was able to study medicine in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. However, she could not transform her diploma into practice as she died in 1887, soon after returning to India due to tuberculosis. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider Kadambini as the first Indian practising female doctor in India.^7,16,17

Florence Nightingale also remarked on Kadambini's dedication to education following the delivery of her child when she was at medical school noting that ‘[She] has already passed what is called the first licentiate in medicine and surgery examinations and is to go up for the final examination in March next. This young lady, Mrs. Ganguly, married! After she made up her mind to become a doctor! and has had one, if not two children since. But she was absent only thirteen days for her lying-in!! And did not miss, I believe, a single lecture!!’.^17,20

Professional journey and achievements

Florence Nightingale recommended Kadambini to the Marchioness of Dufferin who sponsored many hospitals in India. In 1888, she was appointed to the Lady Dufferin Hospital in Calcutta (Figure 3) and granted a monthly salary of Rs 300. She was also summoned to treat the women of the Nepalese royal family, who gave her a gift of a pony.^10,17,18

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Figure 3.

Lady Dufferin Victoria Hospital (current state).

Despite hard work, Kadambini faced discrimination from her Indian male colleagues and also from British doctors. She was denied the responsibility of a hospital ward, and her degree was considered insignificant. The local population thought of her more as a midwife than as a doctor and some even regarded her success as a threat to the patriarchal society. Kadambini was never offered a permanent post at the hospital and she complained in vain about the custom of excluding the Indian women from the best job opportunities in the hospital. The British Raj was also hesitant about appointing an Indian to a senior position and following her appointment as head of the dispensary, Kadambini encountered prejudice from many hospital staff members, particularly those belonging to the higher caste Brahmins, who treated her unfairly because of her adherence to the Brahmo Samaj doctrine and her accomplishments in earning a medical degree from the Medical College of Calcutta. She made an effort to disregard the rumours around her and worked hard for the hospital, indeed she is remembered for her efforts to treat all patients equally, regardless of their nationality or skin colour. ⁹

Nevertheless, Kadambini proficient in both surgery and medicine, rose quickly to prominence, even among women from outside of Calcutta, where there were no female doctors available to treat the native Indian women and who because of social prejudices were denied access to proper medical care. She opened her own clinic to provide minimally priced treatment to patients who could not get admittion to hospitals.^10,18,21

1889 was a landmark year in Kadambini's life and the history of Indian women. The Bombay session of the Indian National Congress (established in 1885) had six female representatives, including Kadambini. She delivered the vote of thanks in English at the Calcutta session of the Congress in 1890, the first Indian female to speak on such an occasion, which was commemorated by Annie Besant in her book, How India Wrought for her Freedom as, ‘One of the delegates, Mrs Kadambini Ganguli, was called on to move the vote of thanks to the chairman, the first woman who spoke from Congress platform, a symbol that India's freedom would uplift India's womanhood’. She also received attention from, David Kopf, an American historian who acknowledged her for being the ‘most accomplished and liberated Brahmo woman of her time’ and being instrumental in the liberation of the Bengali females of her period.^1,3,18,22

In 1891, the orthodox magazine, Bangabasi, made accusations against Kadambini, by then a mother of five, by calling her a “whore”. Dwarkanath along with Sivanath Sastri and Nilratan Sircar challenged the editor of Bangabasi, Mahesh Chandra Pal, who was penalised with a Rs 100 fine and six months of imprisonment. Additionally, they reported their views through their journal the Indian Messenger.^3,10

Failing to receive equal treatment and recognition from male doctors, in 1892, Kadambini decided to study for higher medical qualifications in the UK, which she hoped would increase her standing in the Indian medical community. In 1893, she successfully passed the examination for the Scottish Triple Qualification: LRCPE, LRCSE, LRFSPG (the Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons Edinburgh, and the Licentiate of the Royal Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons Glasgow), and had her name entered in the British Medical Register. ¹⁰ Dr Ganguly had now created a space for herself in the medical field when it was mostly dominated by men.

During the nineteenth century, the purdah system prevented women from seeking medical treatment from male doctors. Further, the use of unhygienic techniques for child delivery at home by the midwives jeopardized the health of women, which contributed to high female mortality rates. Also, women who could not produce offspring were abandoned by their families. These factors motivated Kadambini to realise her calling in obstetrics and gynaecology. ¹⁸ On her return to India, she specialized in obstetrics and gynaecology and worked as a senior doctor at the Lady Dufferin Hospital in Calcutta undertaking home deliveries when required. On several occasions, though she was regarded as a midwife and asked to wash the utensils and sweep the floors.^15,17,21 Kadambini's hobbies included needlework and she occupied herself with stitching even when travelling from one place to another in her horse-driven carriage during her medical rounds. She managed the household chores of an early twentieth century Bengali household, ranging from washing clothes, cleaning utensils, mopping and sweeping the floor, as well as taking care of her in-laws, her husband, and her children, all alongside her profession and paying attention to the food menu for her sister-in-law, an Orthodox Hindu.^3,17,18

Societal impact and innovative processes in women's empowerment and medical education

Kadambini did not keep the benefits of her success just to herself. She was a proponent of women's education and understood the problems felt by female students. She had provided education to girl children since her college days. She aided females in pursuing a career in midwifery and helped secure their admission to college. She advocated the building of crèches for children of women employees of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation. She was generous and provided free treatment to the poor. ¹⁸ She worked for the improvement in working conditions of women coal miners in Raniganj, who were living miserable lives. ¹⁷

Both the British Raj in India and Kadambini were moved by the pathetic condition of Indian girls, who suffered serious injuries to their external genitalia, owing to the custom of child marriage. These girls often refrained from medical treatment because of the purdah system. To investigate this British government appointed Kadambini Ganguly, the first native female physician in the country to conduct a survey. Based on her report, in 1891 the Age of Consent Act was passed, which considered sexual intercourse with a girl under 12 years of age to be rape, resulting in criminal prosecution. ¹⁸

Alongside her husband, Kadambini was active in the Nationalist Movement, which sought to free India from the British Raj. They participated in numerous movements opposing British rule and were also prominent members of the Indian National Congress. She became the President of the Transvaal Indian Association, an organisation founded in South Africa by Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948), (alias Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, alias Gandhiji) a lawyer and an important figure in India's struggle for independence, and father of the nation. This was during the period when females were not regarded as citizens. In 1906, she organised the Women's Conference to discuss the issue of partition of Bengal and presided over a Sadharan Brahmo Samaj meeting in 1914 to appreciate Gandhiji. She promoted Satyagrahas, a form of nonviolent resistance for societal reforms, and sought to raise funds through public mass mobilisation. ¹⁷

Kadambini died on 7th October 1923 after returning home from working at the hospital. On her 150th birthday commemoration, her great-grandson, Rajib Ganguly wrote about the reformist couple, ‘their extremely successful relationship was founded on mutual love, sensitivity and intelligence’. ¹⁷ In 2011, Dr Ketaki Bagchi, a female doctor and a member of the Brahmo Samaj decided to file a petition requesting renaming of a medical school after Dr Kadambini Ganguly in the Indian state of West Bengal. She said ‘My target was to get at least 1000 petitioners before her birth anniversary on July 18’. ²³ Sadly, this has not yet been achieved.

Dr Ganguly inspired many Indian girls to consider going to school and to study for a profession. Her political work served as a solid cornerstone for women's emancipation in India, particularly in the years after independence. On 18th July 2021, Google celebrated Dr Ganguly's 160th birth anniversary with a doodle on its homepage in India. ²⁴

Clearly though, Dr Kadambini Ganguly is celebrated by the current members of the Medical College, Kolkata and also the Bengali people, with a portrait of the first Indian female doctor on their entrance wall (Figure 4).

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Figure 4.

Dr Kadambini Ganguly's portrait on the entrance wall of Medical College, Kolkata.

In conclusion, the story of Dr Kadambini Bose Ganguly is a lesson for the generations. Despite facing gender discrimination and public criticism, she was determined to finish her medical studies. Rather than giving up because of prejudice and bias she advanced her career by passing the Triple Qualification of Scotland and gaining entry in the British Medical Register. Kadambini throughout her life ignored social stigmas, was a capable housewife, a caring mother and a skillful doctor. Additionally, she supported women's education, childcare for working mothers, and advised the government on female health issues, and was politically active. The influence though of both of her father and her husband should not be forgotten. We conclude that if women are ambitious and men are willing to change their inherent prejudices, they both can foster a better society which promotes female education and encourages female career development. Her life is perhaps reflected in the well-known Bangla proverb ‘Je Randhe, Se Chulo Bandhe’, which translates: ‘one who can cook food, and does other household chores for her family, can also dress-up and get-up well to face the challenges of the outside world’.