Abstract
Abstract
Youth are important change agents for social, political and economic issues. However, research evidence suggests that many youth, especially females, face many challenges in Nepal in reaching their social potential due to serious problems with educational access and attainment. This study examines the influence of educational attainment on achieving the social potential of Nepalese female youth through a secondary analysis of data from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Results from this analysis show that one out of 10 female youth are illiterate and do not receive a formal education. Socio-demographic variables, such as marital status, caste, place of residence and wealth status were found to be major predictors for literacy status and educational attainment of female youth in Nepal. The findings from this study suggest that special attention should be paid to these critical variables for guiding educational and interventional planning by concerned authorities including stakeholders for improving the social potential, as well as the health and well-being of female youth in Nepal.
Keywords
Background
Youth and young people are especially front and centre of all socio-economic and developmental activities (Butler, 2019). The United Nations (UN) estimates that about one-fifth of the total population falls under the age of 15–24 years and are called ‘youth’ (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, n.d.). However, many countries have their own definition about the term ‘youth’ which depends upon their own unique socio-cultural, political, institutional and economic factors (Nepal Law Commission, 2010). The UN claims the existing population of the youth is the largest ever in history. The UN Development Assistant Framework has mentioned the provision of health care, education, safe drinking water, sanitation and nutrition as basic quality services which are considered as basic rights of youth (YUWA & UNICEF, 2012). The Government of Nepal (GoN) has also committed to assure basic quality services for youth since the GoN is a member state of the UN.
Youth are change agents in terms of social, political and economic issues (Nepal Law Commission, 2010). UNFPA states ‘young people can make informed decisions, take positive and productive actions and motivate friends and families to think and act differently to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals’ (SDG), (as cited in The Himalayan Times, 2018). Universally, there is a challenge concerning how to best educate youth, especially in developing countries. ‘Leave no one behind’ is a popular slogan but it has yet to be achieved. To achieve this goal, academic institutions, like schools, have to play significant roles in educating youth. Various researchers suggest that comprehensive and high-quality education is not only an effective means to develop good character but also a promising approach to overcome the problems of no-education, no schooling and other contemporary social issues (Battistich, 2005). Secondary and higher-level education programmes are designed to focus on youth in terms of curriculum and educational delivery components. However, many young people do not receive formal education in Nepal, as well as in many developing countries (Ministry of Health, New ERA, & ICF, 2017). With the changing scenario of social, political and economic changes, many countries have identified and introduced some uncertainty, unpredictability as well as risky socio-cultural environmental factors faced by youth, especially by young female (Dwyer & Wyn, 2001). Difficulties faced by youth should be treated wisely and seriously. Education may be the most important means to overcome these difficulties.
There are so many challenges and problems facing Nepalese female youth. Early marriage, child labour, human trafficking and gender-based discrimination are some of these challenges (Rana, 2012). In addition, no schooling and or no access to education also contribute to these problems (Ministry of Health et al., 2017). But youth possess great social potential. ‘Nepali young people says youth can inspire communities to break limitations and prejudices, raise their voices to spread messages, carry out actions and review the progress of SDGs and hold their government accountable’ (The Himalayan Times, 2018). Education for youth is not only a key human right but also a part of socio-economic development, global peace and prosperity as well. The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS, 2011) shows that nearly 8–8.7 per cent of urban females aged 15–19 years and 20–24 years, respectively, have never attended school. Similarly, this condition is even worse in rural areas. Nearly 15–31.2 per cent of females aged 15–19 years and 20–24 years, respectively, have never attended school from the rural areas of Nepal (Rana, 2012). However, the educational participation data are gradually improving but levels of educational participation are still not satisfactory. The Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2016 shows that 14.2–7.3 per cent of the total female youth aged 15–19 and 20–24 years, respectively, still did not attend school (Ministry of Health et al., 2017). According to CBS 2011, only 80 per cent of all girls enrolled in primary school. This level of enrolment sharply declined for secondary schooling and reached only 25–9.3 per cent of adolescent girls enrolment respectively in rural and urban areas (Rana, 2012). That means, one-fifth of the girls never attended school.
The National Youth Policy report 2010 described youth as capable, creative and competent, with scientific and positive long-term vision so that they can make meaningful contributions to social, political and economic growth and development (Nepal Law Commission, 2010). But it is almost impossible for youth to attain these goals without proper education. Similarly, global initiatives also focus on the role of female education as a critical process of development. Women in development (WID), women and development (WAD) and gender and development (GAD) also focus on the importance of education (Akrong, 2014). According to the World Bank, even a 10 per cent increase in girls’ enrolment in schools may lead to an increase of 3 per cent in per capita income annually. Similarly, if girls have received secondary or higher-level education, there is a greater likelihood to increase family income, lower domestic violence and improve the well-being of the family (Rana, 2012).
The youth developmental agenda emerged in 1965 and the year 1985 was celebrated as International Youth Year with the theme of ‘participation, development and peace’. About a decade later, the UN adopted the ‘world programme of action for youth to the year 2000 and beyond’ in 1995 (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, n.d.). Early marriage, gender and caste discrimination, child labour, high opportunity cost, cost of schooling, lack of female teachers and distance to education were identified as hindering factors for enabling girls to access education. It is widely accepted that most of the SDGs cannot be achieved without meaningful participation by females. Studies recommend that waiving school fees, providing incentives to girls, and introducing alternative learning opportunity may increase girls’ educational access and enrolment in higher education too (Akrong, 2014; Rana, 2012).
Education is a lifelong process. Literacy is associated with all aspects of development, including the change process (Akrong, 2014). Research data show low enrolment and high dropout rates in school education for girls in Nepal (Shohel & Howes, 2006). Considering these factors, this study analyses the influences of socio-demographic factors on educational access and educational attainment of female youth in Nepal. A main objective of this study is to examine how Nepalese female youth educational status influences their social potential, as well as the health and well-being of their families.
Methods
This study is a descriptive secondary analysis of data from the NDHS 2016 obtained from MEASURE DHS+ which was national representative survey. This was the fifth survey of its kind, conducted to collect reliable, accurate and up-to-date information from the Nepalese people. The survey protocol was reviewed and approved by Nepal Health Research Council, Nepal and ICF Institutional Review Board, Maryland, USA. Consent was taken prior to interview during data collection. And the survey was financially and technically supported by United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
The sample frame was based upon the census 2011 conducted by CBS and created a primary sampling unit by generating enumeration areas in each ward. The survey consisted of 14 sampling strata covering rural, urban and other geographical contexts. The survey instrument was a questionnaire with six sections. The questionnaire was prepared in English and later translated into Nepali, Maithili and Bhojpuri as per need. Data were collected by deploying computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) using a tablet computer. Data from 4,849 female youth were extracted from data available from NDHS which was imported into SPSS software for statistical analysis.
The dependent variable in the survey is literacy status which is manipulated/categorised in dichotomous character as ‘literate’ and ‘illiterate’. The major independent variables are individual and family characteristics such age group (15–19 years and 20–24 years), marital status, caste, religion, province, residence setting, employment, sex of household head and wealth status. Univariate, bivariate (chi-square test) and multivariate analyses (binary logistic regression) are performed by using the software SPSS version 24. We have excluded the variable ‘religion’ in the multivariate analysis since the Muslim caste appeared as correlated with the Muslim religion.
Results
Socio-demographic Characteristics of Female Youth
Background Characteristics of Female Youths
Bivariate Analysis of Socio-demographic Features of Female Youth and Literacy Status
Background Characteristics of Female Youths by Literacy Status
The data show that Brahmin and Chhetri from Hill and Terai, and Hill Janajatis were comparatively more literate which accounts for nearly 96 per cent. With reference to religion, a significantly higher percentage of Muslim female youth were more illiterate (46.8%) compared to Hindu (14%), Kirat/Christian (7.6%) and Buddhist (6.5%, p < 0.001). Nepal has recently practised a federal residential structure where female youths from Province 2 were more vulnerable to being illiterate, 42.7 per cent compared to Province 5 (12.8%), Province 1 (8.9%), Province 3 (5.4%) and Province 4 (3.2%, p < 0.001). According to the data, female youth from Province 4 were more literate (96.8%) than in other provinces. More than one-fifth (21.2%) of the female youth from rural areas were illiterate compared to urban youth (11.5%, p < 0.001). It was observed that there were associations between job opportunity and literacy status (p < 0.001). Nearly one-fifth (18.3%) of female youth who were not currently working at the time of data collection were illiterate compared to the females who were working (11.5%). Female youth who belonged to male-headed households were more illiterate (16.1%) compared to those who belonged to female-headed households (13.1%, p < 0.01). Interestingly, female youth from middle-class families seemed more illiterate (24.1%) compared to the poor (15.6%) and rich female youth (10.4%, p < 0.001) (see Table 2).
Multivariate Analysis of Socio-demographic Features of Female Youths and Literacy
We used binary logistic regression (Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 … + bnXn) to estimate the probability of being illiterate among different socio-demographic characteristics of female youth. Female youth aged 20–24 years of age were more likely to be illiterate (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.336, p < 0.01) than never-married females. Data showed that ever married but currently single due to various reason seemed to be illiterate. Separated, divorced or widowed female youth showed a greater likelihood of being illiterate (aOR = 4.445, p < 0.01) and currently married (aOR = 2.9, p < 0.001) compared to never-married females. Female youth from Muslim backgrounds were more vulnerable to being illiterate compared to female youth from Hill Brahmin and Chhetri castes. The odds of Muslim female youth being illiterate was very high (aOR = 26.478, p < 0.001). Female youth from Terai Dalit, other Terai castes and Terai Janajatis castes tended to be illiterate (aOR = 23.065, aOR = 11.49, aOR = 3.229, p < 0.001) (see Table 3).
Adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) and 95% Confidence Interval (CI) of Reported Illiterate Among Female Youth in Nepal, by Selected Predictors
Discussion
Female literacy is not only an issue of human right or educational attainment but also a component of global prosperity, as well as sustainable development (Rana, 2012). Data show that various socio-demographic factors were associated with youth literacy. Data reveal that the higher the age of female youth, the lower the chance of educational attainment or the achievement of literacy. This suggests that special educational interventions can be applied (Shohel & Howes, 2006) from non-formal and formal system of education to improve educational and literacy outcomes for Nepalese female youth. Education for Nepalese girls is not only a political and constitutional agenda but also a critical factor for achieving human potential related to social growth, development and consensus.
The Beijing + 20 civil society report identifies six critical areas with women: poverty, health, violence, armed conflict, economy, and power and decision-making. Without adequate education, these critical areas cannot be addressed. Unfortunately, low enrolment and high dropout rates of Nepalese girls in the educational mainstream have been alarming and have challenged policymakers to adequately address how different socio-demographic factors influence literacy levels for achieving the goal of ‘empowering women, empowering humanity’ (Beyond Beijing Committee & National Network for Beijing-review Nepal, 2014). Higher educational attainment plays a vital role in providing job opportunities, and job opportunities play a vital role in enhancing family income, increasing better decision-making for promoting health, and mobilising the social and personal resources that are vital for physical and mental health (Paudel, Deagon, Ham, & Hillman, 2018).
According to NDHS 2016, 1 out of 10 (10%) of the total female youth (15–24 years) were illiterate (Ministry of Health et al., 2017) despite the constitutional provision of compulsory and free basic education to all (Nepal Law Commission, 2015). The fact that an economically active age group is still not benefiting from the mainstream of education is a serious social challenge. We observed major disparities in the literacy levels of Nepalese female youth, according to key demographic characteristics, with more than one-third of female youth from single women (youths) due to separated/divorced/widowed, more than half of Terai Dalit, one-fifth of rural, nearly half of Muslim and residence of Province 2 and nearly one-fifth of middle-class families being illiterate. Such disparities can be minimised by various means of educational interventions, such as the innovative programmes implemented in Bangladesh (Shohel & Howes, 2006).
Economic surveys show that the net enrolment rate at the entry level of education was 96.9 per cent, but decreased to 59.8 per cent at secondary levels in the academic year 2016 (Ministry of Finance, 2016). Limited education limits the job opportunities for youth that leads to social inequalities and social problems (Benjet et al., 2012). It is accepted that one of the causes of irresponsible, unadjusted social behaviours and misconduct is lack of education (Dyck, 2015). The GoN has planned to implement adult literacy, women literacy, income generation programmes and community learning centres to address the illiteracy issue facing adults and youth (Department of Education, 2011). However, the problem of lack of education remains nearly the same despite the various efforts enacted by the GoN.
Ricketts and Rudd (2000) mentioned five dimensions to teach, train and develop leadership in youth. They are knowledge and information about leadership; desire attitude and will; critical thinking, reasoning and decision-making; communication skills—oral and written; and intra and interpersonal skills. These ideas can be used to help make the youth more responsible, as well as more capable. This can be achieved by improving educational access and educational attainment.
Globally, different models are applied to educate girls. Africa’s Advancing Girls Education (AGE) model may be applied in Nepal to address the female youths’ problems regarding education (Rana, 2012). The model appeared to be successful in Malawi, South Africa. The aim of the model is to create life-changing opportunities for young females. Equal access to education for girls empowers them to become leaders. The model incorporates three components: comprehensive scholarships, life skills monitoring and career guidance education (Rana, 2012).
Conclusion
We observed several key variables that were associated with illiteracy for female youth in Nepal. Female youth who were 20–24 years of age; married, separated, divorced and widowed; Muslim, Terai Dalit and other Terai caste groups; residing in Province 2; living in rural areas; and poor and middle-class families were more susceptible to be illiterate. Therefore, special attention should be paid to these factors when planning educational interventions for them to promote social justice and sustainable development. Strategic planning should be enacted by the concerned authorities to address the hindering factors to bring female youth into the mainstream of education that ultimately supports achieving the sustainable development goals that are expected to be achieved by 2030 for health and well-being, not only for female youth but also for a prosperous Nepal.
Footnotes
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank MEASURE DHS+ for making the data accessible.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: No potential conflict of interest.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: No fund available.
