Do Occasional Volunteers Repeat their Experience?

Abstract

Understanding the experiences of volunteers is critical to the effective management of non-profit organizations. Many organizations benefit greatly from the work of volunteers; however, little is known about the interest of occasional volunteers in repeating their experience. Our research aims to understand occasional volunteers and their intention to repeat the experience. To achieve this objective, it is essential to understand volunteers’ motivations and the influence of volunteers’ previous experiences in motivations. At the same time, it is necessary to know how these factors may impact satisfaction and therefore, the intention to repeat the experience in the future. For this research, we analyzed the campaigns organized by the Food Bank Against Hunger (FBAH) in Portugal. Through online questionnaires, data were collected at two different moments: one month before and one month after the campaign. Results show five motivations categories: purposive, understanding, protection and enhancement, group identification and career. The research shows that motivations vary depending on volunteers’ previous experience, and this fact may also influence the level of satisfaction with the experience. All volunteers presented a high level of satisfaction and this variable influences volunteers intention of repeating, that is, volunteers wanting to be engaged in future campaigns.

Keywords

Occasional volunteering motivations experience satisfaction intention to repeat

Introduction

This article researches how non-profit organizations (NPOs) approach occasional volunteering so that the volunteers repeat their experience in future activities. A better understanding of this question will lead to a more efficient and enhanced NPO management, since knowing the volunteers better will allow organizations to more easily develop actions to meet volunteers’ needs and expectations.

The phenomenon of occasional volunteering is attracting growing interest. The contribution that volunteers make to NPOs, as well as the capacity of an organization to recall volunteers, is vital (Bryen, 2006). The non-profit sector has seen an outstanding growth in figures and scope, considering that these organizations are active in a massive range of activities and work in a very dynamic environment (Briggs, Peterson, & Gregory, 2009; Bruyere & Rappe, 2007; Sargeant, West, & Ford, 2004; Weir & Hibbert, 2000). The growing number of NPOs has not been accompanied by an equal growth in terms of available resources and, often, the NPOs’ knowledge about management and marketing is unclear, particularly regarding fundraising (Pope, Isely, & Asamoa-Tutu, 2009). The same authors show that management and communication, generally, are not directed to beneficiaries or volunteers, although volunteers can be seen as important stakeholders. Most of the NPOs do not understand volunteer recruitment and activities planning as a management function and therefore, NPOs often run into difficulty in recruiting and keeping good volunteers (Pope et al., 2009). At the same time, it is important to mention that human resource management and its practices play a central role in supporting environmental and social management initiatives (Freitas, Jabbour, Mangili, Filho, & Oliveira, 2012).

Volunteering is

an action that should be carried out voluntarily, according to an individual’s own free will and not as an obligation stipulated by law, contract or academic requirement…The action should not be undertaken primarily for financial reward and…should be for the common good. (United Nations [UN], 2011, p. 4)

Given volunteering’s influence and contribution to the society currently, it is a phenomenon that has the scope of significant development (Schervish, 1993).

Volunteering occurs in every society in the world. The terms which define it and the forms of its expression may vary in different languages and cultures, but the values which drive it are common and universal: a desire to contribute to the common good, out of free will and in a spirit of solidarity, without expectation of material reward. (UN, 2011, p. 4)

Literature refers to the existence of occasional or episodic, permanent or regular volunteers. Occasional volunteers work for specific events on a sporadic basis, for limited duration (Beder & Fast, 2008), and are involved on a less frequent basis, fluctuating from activities carried out every couple of months to one-time events (Hustinx, Haski-Leventhal, & Handy, 2008). ‘Regular volunteers are those who carry out activities at least once a month in a 12-month period of reference’ (Hustinx et al., 2008, p. 52). Occasional volunteering is an emergent tendency in several countries, although it cannot be considered as an innovative phenomenon. ‘The phenomenon has become more prevalent in recent times, possibly because of people’s increasingly hectic lives and the professionalism of the nonprofit workforce’ (Bryen, 2006, p. 8). Occasional volunteering has received limited attention in the literature on volunteering, particularly because of the inherent difficulty in tracking a volunteer who participates sporadically and in diverse events (Beder & Fast, 2008). It is an under-explored area, with few empirical studies, that needs research (Bryen, 2006). For many NPOs, the appeal of occasional volunteering is for events performed in a specific timeline (Pauline & Pauline, 2009). Volunteers at events are critical to its success and many times, without the personal investment of these volunteers, events could not have been organized (Kemp, 2002). Definitely, volunteers are one of the crucial factors for the success of events (Gallarza, Valencia, Arteaga, & Gil-saura, 2013).

The need to adopt a strategic approach towards the management of volunteering is evident and organizational sustainability improvement should be pursued using specific programmes (Freitas et al., 2012). So, organizations responsible for the management of volunteers should consider their workforce as part of the strategic planning process and the more and better an organization knows its volunteers, the more easily can it meet their expectations and needs (Ferreira, Proença, & Proença, 2012b). For organizations that work with occasional volunteers, it is relevant to understand: (a) why some occasional volunteers repeat the experience; and (b) why some occasional volunteers do not continue their collaboration with the NPO after the experience.

Thus, this research intends to understand what factors influence occasional volunteers in the decision to repeat their experience. The article discusses the volunteers’ motivations and the influence of volunteers’ previous experiences (participations) in motivations for volunteering, and how these factors influence satisfaction and the intention to repeat the experience in the future. We review these four ideas: motivations for volunteering; previous experiences in volunteering (previous participation); satisfaction; and intention to repeat volunteering experience. We surveyed 436 occasional volunteers and conclude that there is a relationship between volunteers’ previous experiences (participations) and motivations for volunteering; and there is a relationship between volunteers’ previous experiences (participations) with satisfaction and intention to repeat. Knowing the relationship between the mentioned variables will allow the organization to design some actions specially directed to the specificities of their volunteers, thereby strengthening their relationship and fostering loyalty. In terms of attracting new volunteers, organizations can develop actions to attract volunteers with different motivational profiles. Thus, some implications and consequences for volunteer organizations and outlining directions for future research are also presented.

Literature Review

Volunteers’ Motivations

Theories on volunteer motives have been a central point in recent research, although additional research is required. Information on the motivation behind individuals giving is interesting, particularly because of the growing scale of volunteer role in the non-profit sector (Sargeant et al., 2004). People engage in volunteerism for a variety of reasons (UN, 2011). Altruism is one of the first motivations referred to in the literature (Tapp & Spanier, 1973), dealing with the expression of personal values (e.g., help those less fortunate) and contrasting with other motives (e.g., develop social contacts) as self-serving motives. Clary and his colleagues (1998) present a functionalist approach and classify motivations as values, social, career, protective, enhancement and understanding. Farrell, Johnston and Twynam (1998) show that traditional volunteers have different motivations from occasional volunteers. Motivations of occasional volunteers include: helping others (Beder & Fast, 2008); expressing their values (Bruyere & Rappe, 2007); benefits for own well-being and self-esteem (Beder & Fast, 2008; Paço & Agostinho, 2012); making friends who share a common interest (Pan, 2012); social contacts (Kemp, 2002); and specific motivations related with the activities involved in the working scenario. Pan (2012) displays tourist volunteers as persons that like adventure have a desire to travel and want to learn more about other cultures and interact with the local people. Bruyere and Rappe (2007) mention that environmental volunteers want to help the environment. Farrell et al. (1998) and Kemp (2002) show sport volunteers as persons that love leisure and have pride in the country. Holmes (2003) presents cultural volunteers as the ones that are motivated by social interaction with others. These findings show that occasional volunteers can be motivated by altruistic, and also egotistic, motivations (Bryen, 2006). Those motivational factors can be considered as material because they are complimentary items that volunteers would receive for their service. Pauline and Pauline (2009) argue that those motivations are related with a genuine concern for the event and for the community as a whole.

There has been a great deal of research dedicated to the topic of volunteering as it applies to events (Lockstone-Binney, Holmes, Smith, & Baum, 2010; Nichols & Ojala, 2009) and many tools have been used to measure and explain motivations. Clary et al. (1998) present a motivation profile of six different functions—value, understanding, social, career, protective and enhancement—using the volunteer functions inventory (VFI). Grano, Lucidi, Zelli and Violani (2008) clustered motivations to volunteer in six different groups: intrinsic motivation; integrated regulation; identified regulation; introjected regulation; external regulation; and amotivation, using the motivation to volunteer scale (MVS). Farrell et al. (1998) present four motivations categories: purposive (doing something useful and contributing to society); solidary (social interaction, group identification and networking); external traditions (family traditions and leisure time); and commitments (expectations from others for volunteering, connect personal expectations with volunteer commitment), using the special event volunteer motivations scale (SEVMS).

Volunteers’ Experience

Individuals might contribute and participate in volunteering activities through diverse modalities related to involvement or time commitment (Gallarza et al., 2013). The need to promote participation can be outlined as the problem of inaction, meaning that ‘many more people support the idea of volunteerism as a way of tackling society’s problems than actually enter into service as volunteers’ (Clary & Snyder, 2002, p. 583). The volunteers have experienced a great expansion in recent years, but many NPOs are concerned with volunteers’ participations after people have experienced volunteering (Hibbert, Piacentini, & Dajani, 2003). Literature indicates that using active retention reduces the effort spend in new recruitments, so a new volunteer is considerable more expensive than investing in an existing one (Karl, Peluchette, & Hall, 2008). Therefore, it is essential to mature an internal strategy focused on encouraging volunteers to repeat their experience.

As for the benefits of participation, theoretical and empirical inquiries have identified benefits to the individuals who participate, to the recipients of the services that they provide, to the institutions in which participation occurs, and to the larger community. (Clary & Snyder, 2002, p. 583)

Very clear are the benefits to the recipients of services (e.g., families in need that receive meals), to the organizations in which participation occurs (e.g., to the organizations that receive food collected by volunteers) and to the larger community (Clary & Snyder, 2002).

In terms of tools, volunteers’ experience can be measured through the number of previous participations in other campaigns but within the same organization.

One of the goals of this research is to discuss volunteers’ motivations and the influence of previous experiences in campaigns on motivations. ‘To encourage the long-term involvement of volunteers and consequently ensure the sustainability of the project, it is of primary importance to understand factors that motivate volunteering for the enterprise’ (Hibbert et al., 2003, p. 35). This leads to the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H₁): Is the volunteers’ previous experience (participations) related with the various volunteers’ motivations type?

Volunteers Satisfaction

One of the most famous conceptualization of the components of satisfaction is Oliver’s expectancy disconfirmation model (Oliver, 1980), which basically considers satisfaction as a result subsequent from a comparison process among initial expectations and perceived performance (Ince & Bowen, 2011).

It can be stated that there are similarities between the work experience of paid and unpaid workers. Both interact with organizations and with other people who are part of the same organization. Both have expectations about their participation. However, the nature of these expectations may be fairly different, so it can be argued that similarities are insufficient to justify the use of job satisfaction concept with the same frameworks for paid and unpaid workers (Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001). The concept of satisfaction is considered theoretically relevant in many studies, particularly as an important element that might influence volunteers participation in organizations (Jiménez, Fuertes, & Abad, 2009). According to the same authors, satisfaction is a difficult concept to study since it has a wide diversity of interpretations. Several authors (Costa, Chalip, Green, & Simes, 2006; Farrell et al., 1998; Ferreira et al., 2012b) have analyzed volunteers satisfaction, trying to know what are the aspects that determine it, as well as which factors influence it. Since satisfaction plays an important role in retention, it would be convenient to identify some of the antecedents that influence volunteers’ satisfaction (Costa et al., 2006). Thus, one of the purposes of this research is to examine these antecedents.

Satisfaction measurement has a wide variety of instruments (Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001), which may use a single question to measure overall satisfaction, or separate issues for measuring the ability to complete tasks (Costa et al., 2006), satisfaction with operational procedures or satisfaction with management (Jiménez et al., 2009). To evaluate volunteers satisfaction, it is important to consider a link among motivations and actual experience (Farrell et al., 1998). These authors have measured volunteers’ satisfaction in a specific sport event, considering satisfaction with the experience; satisfaction with the facilities; and satisfaction with the event organization. Results indicate that overall satisfaction of the volunteer is not only grounded on the result of their expectations but also depends on aspects which the organization can control (satisfaction with the facilities and event organization). It is essential to provide a positive experience to volunteers, foster team spirit, thereby allowing them to feel part of the structure (Costa et al., 2006). Usually, occasional volunteers

have less social benefits and networks; their feeling of impact and fulfillment is to a much less degree (since they are usually not exposed to the long-term impact of their work); and their level of affiliation to the group and the organization is relatively low. However, considering the fact that they only give very little time and that usually they are involved in tasks that are not emotionally challenging, they get a good value of experience for their involved costs. (Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2011, p. 132)

Considering the existence of different volunteers’ motivations (Ferreira, Proença, & Proença, 2012a), that a specific context of an organization may not respond similarly to all types of motivations and past experiences might influence volunteers satisfaction, we formulated the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2 (H₂): Is the volunteers satisfaction influenced by motivation type?

Hypothesis 3 (H₃): Volunteers with a high level of previous experiences (participations) are more satisfied than volunteers with a low level of previous experiences.

Volunteers Intention to Repeat

Volunteers that decide to repeat their experience, as occasional volunteers, may be motivated by different factors (Ryan, Kaplan, & Grese, 2001) and some authors believe that after identifying motivation, recruitment and retention would be easier and NPOs might influence volunteers and make them repeat their experience year after year (Beder & Fast, 2008). Campaigns that give volunteers the opportunity to see direct improvements as a result of their work can have an important influence on volunteers (Ryan et al., 2001). The same authors affirm that the tangible way in which the campaign helps people in need may be an important element, since seeing the tangible benefits of their efforts can be more rewarding than sending a cheque to an organization. Furthermore, the organization of the volunteer campaign itself may have some influence on volunteers. So, we can say that the dimension, impact and prestige of a certain NPO might also influence volunteers and their intention to repeat the experience. Well-organized campaigns that allow volunteers to become involved with the organization may be more appealing to volunteers (Ryan et al., 2001). Also, if NPOs want to make efforts in order to have volunteers repeating their experience, it is important to note that recognition is considered very important. This suggests that organizers of occasional volunteers must be attentive to the recognition and appreciation needs of these volunteers (Beder & Fast, 2008). It is also important to mention the relevance of the variable time, since the effect of satisfaction and intention to repeat the experience might be diluted over time. The truth is that it is rare to find dissatisfied volunteers, maybe because they will not be around long enough to complete a survey (Warner, Newland, & Green, 2011). Also, high levels of satisfaction may be due to a halo effect, meaning that as time passes, the volunteer remembers only the positive experiences (Reeser, Berg, Rhea, & Willick, 2005). So, we will analyze future participations according to different moments in time.

In terms of tools, many researches use one or two questions to determine future participations of volunteers, referring to different moments in time (e.g., probability of volunteer work with organization within six months, one year and two years) (Cheung, Tang, & Yan, 2006; Dávila, 2008). In order to understand the influence of volunteers satisfaction in the intention to repeat the experience, we have the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4 (H₄): Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience.

Hypothesis 4a (H_4a): Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the short term (next campaign).

Hypothesis 4b (H_4b): Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the medium term (next two campaigns).

Hypothesis 4c (H_4c): Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the long term (next three campaigns).

The Research

Objective and Research Delimitation

The main objective of this research is to understand what factors influence occasional volunteers in the decision of repeating their experience. To accomplish this objective, we will research volunteers’ motivations, the influence of volunteers’ previous experiences in motivations, the influence of these two variables on satisfaction and on the intention to repeat the experience.

Literature distinguishes between different types of volunteers, namely, direct service or governance volunteers (Inglis & Cleave, 2006). Direct service volunteers are involved in the delivery of activities, programmes or services offered by the organization, embrace operational tasks and have direct contact with the target audience; and governance volunteers are usually volunteer members of boards, who assume management tasks and have legal and fiduciary responsibilities for the organization’s governance. We will focus our research on direct service volunteers, the bigger group of volunteers.

Some organizations, in addition to the regular activities that develop over the years, also develop specific actions defined as events. At the same time, there are organizations that only develop activities that can be considered as special events, such as sport events (e.g., Olympic games) or musical events (e.g., summer festivals), among many others. These events, with specific start and end dates, require a large number of (additional) volunteers. Our research focuses on occasional volunteers who participated in a campaign to collect food in supermarkets. We selected the campaigns organized by the Food Bank Against Hunger (FBAH) in Portugal. Campaigns organized by this NPO differ from activities offered by many other NPOs since it gives volunteers the opportunity to see direct improvements as a result of their work. Volunteers collect food in supermarkets and the food goes to different NPOs that distribute it to people in need. Therefore, the tangible way in which the campaign helps people in need may be an important element. The FBAH performs two campaigns, per year (a biannual event), to collect food. Each campaign is an event lasting a weekend and besides organization’s permanent volunteers, the organization has occasional volunteers to help in these campaigns.

Data Collection

We collected data through the Portuguese FBAH. The FBAH has 19 banks spread across the country, with the general principles of ‘local collection, local aid’ and ‘helping the poor by giving and sharing’ (BACF, 2013). The FBAH organizes two famous campaigns each year, with a very high media presence, and these represent one of the largest events with occasional volunteers all over the country. The dimension, impact and prestige of the Portuguese FBAH might also influence, positively, the volunteers and their intention to repeat the experience.

Data were collected at two different moments through online questionnaires in all Portuguese FBAH. The first questionnaire was applied before the event and intended to analyze volunteers’ motivations and experience in previous campaigns. The second questionnaire was applied after the event and intended to analyze volunteers’ satisfaction and intention of repeating the experience. At the end, we obtained 612 valid responses, of which 176 (28.8 per cent) were permanent FBAH volunteers. Since the objectives of this research are focused on occasional volunteers, we will characterize only occasional volunteers (n = 436).

The first aim of data collection was to address questions related to volunteers’ motivations and involvement in earlier campaigns. Volunteers’ motivations were assessed using 30 questions from VFI (Clary et al., 1998), plus 16 questions from SEVMS (Farrell et al., 1998). Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale. We used an adapted version of the VFI. Literature presents several studies using the same instrument (Clary et al., 1998; Ferreira et al., 2012a; Paço & Agostinho, 2012), which increased our confidence in VFI and allowed comparisons of our results with others works. Since this research focuses on a special event, it was decided to also include questions used by Farrell et al. (1998) through SEVMS built precisely for special events. Particular care was taken examining redundant issues between VFI and SEVMS.

Figure 1.

Source: Authors’ own.

Volunteers’ experience (participations) in previous campaigns were measured through seven questions: ‘Is it the first time you will participate in a FBAH campaign?’; ‘How many campaigns have you participated in the past?’; ‘Are you a permanent volunteer for FBHA?’, ‘For how long?’; ‘Are you volunteer in another organization?’, ‘Which one?’ and ‘For how long?’. We also collected demographic data, along with the identification of the food bank where the volunteer intended to collaborate, and we requested the e-mail contact in order to send the second questionnaire.

In order to collect information about volunteers’ satisfaction and intention of repeating the experience, we developed a second questionnaire. First of all, we had some items that allowed us to check if the respondent effectively participated in the campaign, in which food bank and how much time was devoted to the campaign. We measured volunteers’ satisfaction through a combination and adaptation of scales used by Clary et al. (1998), Costa et al. (2006) and Farrell et al. (1998) in their research about satisfaction in volunteering. In our research, we evaluated satisfaction by considering: volunteer satisfaction with personal achievement—five questions from the work of Clary et al. (1998); volunteer satisfaction with the experience in the campaign—six questions from the work of Farrell et al. (1998); volunteer satisfaction with the activity—two questions from the work of Clary et al. (1998); and volunteer satisfaction with the tasks—three questions from the work of Costa et al. (2006), withdrawn from job satisfaction scale created by Wood, Chonko and Hunt (1986).

Volunteers’ intention to repeat the experience was measured through the subsequent questions: ‘Are you willing to participate in the following campaign undertaken by the FBHA?’; ‘Are you willing to participate in the two following campaigns undertaken by the FBHA?’; ‘Are you willing to participate in the three following campaigns undertaken by the FBHA?’; ‘Are you willing to collaborate with FBHA as permanent volunteer?’; and ‘Are you willing to collaborate, as occasional volunteer, with other organizations?’

Results

The volunteers in this study clearly present higher levels of education since 43 per cent have a university degree and 35 per cent have completed secondary education, which is consistent with education as a solid prognosticator of volunteering (Burns, Reid, Toncar, Anderson, & Wells, 2008). ‘It is likely that more schooling means people will be more self-confident, more secure, more knowledgeable about social issues, more aware of social problems and ways of tackling them’ (Musick & Wilson, 2008, p. 75). We can say that the majority of the FBAH occasional volunteers (58.9 per cent) devote their time exclusively to this type of volunteering. At the same time, it is observed that volunteers repeat the experience since 90.8 per cent of them have participated in at least one campaign in the past. The majority (56 per cent) dedicate more than four hours to the campaign and 99.3 per cent said that they intend to participate in the next campaign, so we can consider that these occasional volunteers are loyal since they are available to repeat the experience.

We found five types of volunteers’ motivation (see Table 1). We identified five components with eigenvalues greater than 1 and an explained variance of 64.2 per cent: purposive, understanding, protective and enhancement, group identification and career. Purposive motivations relate to doing something useful and contributing to the event and to the society; understanding is related with the opportunity of new learning experiences; protective and enhancement are related with the necessity of being involved with volunteer work as an alternative to negative feelings, associated with ego, and also related to self-esteem and ego; group identification is connected with the willingness of share volunteer activities with known persons; and, finally, career is related to the improvement of professional career through the voluntary work.

Table 1.

Volunteers’ Motivations

Factors	Questions	Components
Factors	Questions	1	2	3	4	5
Career	10. I can make new contacts that might help my business or career	,813
	1. Volunteering can help me to get my foot in the door at a place where I would like to work	,801
	28. Volunteering experience will look good on my resumé	,801
	15. Volunteering allows me to explore different career options	,796
	21. Volunteering will help me to succeed in my chosen profession	,796
Understanding	18. Volunteering let me learn things through direct hands on experience		,791
	14. Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things		,790
	12. I can learn more about the cause for which I am working		,743
	25. I can learn how to deal with a variety of people		,708
	30. I can explore my own strengths		,584
Group Identification	38. A relative or a friend is involved in the campaign			,772
	6. People I know share an interest in community service.			,727
	2. My friends volunteer			,717
	45. Most people in my community volunteer			,685
	39. I wanted to continue a family tradition of volunteering			,647
	4. People I’m close to want me to volunteer			,615
Protection & Enhacement	7. No matter how bad I’ve been feeling, volunteering helps me to forget about it				,748
	20. Volunteering helps me work through by own personal problems				,731
	24. Volunteering is a good escape from my own troubles				,696
	9. By volunteering I feel less lonely				,659
	26. Volunteering makes me feel needed				,560
	27. Volunteering makes me feel better about myself				,516
Purpose	31. I wanted to help make the event a sucess					,773
	32. I wanted to put something back in the community					,760
	34. Volunteering creates a better society					,679
	33. I wanted to feel part of this community					,676

Source: Authors’ own.

In terms of volunteers’ experience (participation) in previous campaigns, it was found that only 9.2 per cent of the volunteers are first-time participants and 90.8 per cent have participated in at least one campaign in the past. In addition, it was found that more than half of occasional volunteers (58.9 per cent) have not donated time to another organization.

In terms of satisfaction, volunteers show high levels of satisfaction with overall experience (see Table 2). The item, ‘it was worth the experience in the campaign’, gets the highest value (6.47).

We identify two components with eigenvalues greater than 1, suggesting two factors with 62.5 per cent of the variance explained, as we can see in Table 3. In terms of intention to repeat, we found that 99.3 per cent of occasional volunteers intend to participate in the next FBAH campaign.

Table 2.

Volunteers’ Satisfaction

Questions	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard deviation
The experience as volunteer in the campaign worth it?	436	1	7	6,47	,850
How gratifying was your volunteer experience in the campaign?	436	2	7	6,12	1,002
I am satisfied with the experience since it was very positive for me	436	1	7	6,04	1,056
Did you felt that through your work you held any good?	436	1	7	5,96	1,070
I am satisfied with the organization of the campaign	436	1	7	5,82	1,245
I am satisfied with the communication between me and the other volunteers	436	1	7	5,70	1,253
I am satisfied with the responsabilities that I had in the campaign	436	1	7	5,67	1,195
I am satisfied with the information I get before the campaign	436	1	7	5,55	1,395
I am satisfied with the outcomes from my work	436	1	7	5,49	1,357
I am satisfied with the information I get during the campaign	436	1	7	5,42	1,397
How important was your contribution to the campaign?	436	1	7	5,42	1,292
I am satisfied with the support I get to develop my work	436	1	7	5,40	1,431
I am satisfied with the rewards I obtained	436	1	7	5,40	1,440
I am satisfied with the feedback I get from my colaboration	436	1	7	5,23	1,533
As volunteer in the campaign how much fun did you get from the experience?	436	1	7	5,21	1,367
I am satisfied with the variety of activities	436	1	7	5,01	1,454

Source: Authors’ own.

Table 3.

Rotated Component Matrix

Factors	Questions	Components
Factors	Questions	1	2
Satisfaction with overall experience	I am satisfied with the information I get during the campaign	,858
	I am satisfied with the organization of the campaign	,812
	I am satisfied with the information I get before the campaign	,787
	I am satisfied with the communication between me and the other volunteers	,754
	I am satisfied with the support I get to develop my work	,741
	I am satisfied with the experience since it was very positive for me	,711
	I am satisfied with the responsabilities that I had in the campaign	,687
	I am satisfied with the outcomes from my work	,614
	I am satisfied with the variety of activities	,607
Satisfaction with personal fulfillment	Did you felt that through your work you held any good?		,788
	How gratifying was your volunteer experience in the campaign?		,758
	The experience as volunteer in the campaign worth it?		,758
	How important was your contribution to the campaign?		,751

Source: Authors’ own.

H₁: we did a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and it showed that the observed level of previous participation is significant (Pillai Trace = 0.128, F = (15, 1290) = 3.84; p_value < 0.001, Partial Eta Squared = 0.43; power = 1), indicating that there is at least one variable with significantly different behaviour. Through Tests of Between-Subjects Effects, it was found that participation in previous campaigns has a statistically significant effect, not rejecting H₁: career (p_value = 0.007) and group identification (p_value = 0.001). Regarding motivational variables, understanding (p_value = 0.076), protective and enhancement (p_value = 0.737) and purposive (p_value = 0.862) participation in previous campaigns does not show a statistically significant effect.

H₂: to test this hypothesis, we performed a linear regression analysis (R² = 0.105, R = 0.325). With respect to the relationship of different types of motivation with satisfaction, it was found that greater the motivation of the volunteer related with understanding (p_value < 0.05) and purposive (p_value < 0.05), the higher was the satisfaction with the experience. These were the two categories with higher values, showing that these are the categories that most influence satisfaction.

H₃: through a multivariate analysis (Pillai Trace = 0.447, F = (6,864) = 0.966; p_value < 0.447, Partial Eta Squared = 0.07, power = 0.387), it was not possible to prove that there are differences in volunteers satisfaction through the participation in previous campaigns, so we reject H₃. It should be noted that satisfaction means and standard deviation are very high and vary little, hindering the detection of differences between groups.

H_4a, H_4b and H_4c: relating the satisfaction gained with the experience with the intention of the volunteer to repeat the experience, we see that the intention to repeat is influenced by satisfaction. This conclusion is the outcome from the various regressions analyses that we performed, as can be seen in Tables 4 and 5.

In the three multiple linear regressions, we found that two variables, ‘satisfaction with overall experience’ and ‘satisfaction with personal fulfilment’, significantly affect the dependent variable of the model—except ‘satisfaction with personal fulfilment’ of H_4a, since this variable is marginally significant (p_value = 0.085) (see Table 5).

Table 4.

Multiple Regression Variables

Hypotheses	Dependent Variable	Independent Variable
Hypothesis _4a – Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the short term (next campaign)	Intention to repeat the experience in the short term (IR1)	Satisfaction with overall experience (S1)Satisfaction with personal fulfillment (S2)
Hypothesis _4b – Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the medium term (next two campaigns)	Intention to repeat the experience in the medium term (IR2)	Satisfaction with overall experience (S1)Satisfaction with personal fulfillment (S2)
Hypothesis _4c – Volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the long term (next three campaigns)	Intention to repeat the experience in the long term (IR3)	Satisfaction with overall experience (S1)Satisfaction with personal fulfillment (S2)

Source: Authors’ own.

Table 5.

T-student of H_4.a, H_4.b and H_4.c

Hypotheses		B	σ	Beta	t	Sig.
H_4a	Constant	1.552	0.497		3.126	0.002
	S1	0.554	0.076	0.370	7.299	0.000
	S2	0.158	0.092	0.088	1.726	0.085
H_4b	Constant	4.669	0.257		18.200	0.000
	S1	0.147	0.039	0.196	3.760	0.000
	S2	0.199	0.047	0.219	4.205	0.000
H_4c	Constant	4.594	0.275		16.720	0.000
	S1	0.174	0.042	0.217	4.142	0.000
	S2	0.174	0.051	0.181	3.438	0.001

Source: Authors’ own.

Table 6.

Regression Model of H_4.a, H_4.band H_4.c

Hypotheses	R	R²	R² Adjusted	Durbin - Watson
H_4.a	0.422	0.178	0.174	1.662
H_4.b	0.362	0.131	0.127	2.068
H_4.c	0.347	0.120	0.116	2.116

Source: Authors’ own.

We can see in Table 6 that satisfaction influences the probability of volunteers repeating the experiment in the short, medium and long term.

Discussion

Our research suggests five motivations categories: purposive, understanding, protection and enhancement, group identification and career. Career and understanding matched with those identified by Clary et al. (1998), while the categories of protection and enhancement, also identified by Clary et al. (1998), appear here grouped in a single factor with four items related with self-protection and two items of enhancing and self-esteem. The category catalogued as group identification expressed the motivation of participates in voluntary work because of their social group. This category results from the confluence of social category from Clary et al. (1998) and external traditions and commitment from Farrell et al. (1998).

It was found that the issues related to purpose of the campaign and values (Clary et al., 1998) are the most important motivations, that is, showing concern to help others and contributing to a cause and a better society. These findings are in line with previous results. For example, occasional volunteers in an environmental community group are primarily motivated by environmental preservation, so they are predominantly altruistically motivated (Bryen, 2006); volunteers that participate in charity walks or runs want to help others, so they also are altruistically motivated (Beder & Fast, 2008); and special event volunteers in sport also identify purposive reasons as the most important ones (Farrell et al., 1998; Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011; Pauline & Pauline, 2009). Volunteers want to have the opportunity of having new learning experiences, learn more about the cause and build new and innovative perspectives. This category—understanding—is not so common among occasional volunteers because of their short-term participation, meaning that is difficult to learn and have new perspectives in a short period of time, although we believe that the tangible benefits of this particular campaign influence volunteers and underline elements connected to the understanding category.

In terms of satisfaction, we can see that all volunteers have a high level of satisfaction in two categories: satisfaction with the overall experience (5.56); and satisfaction with personal fulfilment (5.99). One reason that explains occasional volunteers’ satisfaction may be the short-term nature of this kind of volunteering and the immediate results of their work (Hustinx et al., 2008). Volunteers present high levels of personal fulfilment, considering the experience with the campaign worth it. These results are consistent with past research, for example, volunteers who experienced higher levels of fun in their volunteer workplace had higher satisfaction (Karl et al., 2008) and many volunteers perceived that, after participation as volunteers, they had increased their job and social abilities (Kemp, 2002). Satisfaction with the general experience has a reasonable mean and the lowest value is related with the variety of activities (5.01). In the literature, we can find high values for overall satisfaction among sport volunteers (Farrell et al., 1998; Kemp, 2002), social volunteers (Hustinx et al., 2008) or environmental volunteers (Bruyere & Rappe, 2007). Although a key management factor is related to enhancing volunteer experience through positive practices during the event, the tasks performed by FBAH volunteers are poorly diversified since in warehouses, they select food and in the supermarket, they approach people and collect bags of food. Managers may try to diversify tasks in order to provide opportunities for volunteers to augment their satisfaction.

Analyzing H₁—Is the volunteers’ previous experience (participations) related with the various volunteers’ motivations type?—we found that career motivation is higher in volunteers who participate for the first time in a campaign and group identification is lower in volunteers with no previous participation, being higher for volunteers with previous participation.

Career motivation shows the weakest value (2.33) and addresses the idea that volunteers gain job-related knowledge and experience. Volunteers can explore different career options and improve their resume. The minor importance of career motivation is consistent with previous research (Bruyere & Rappe, 2007). However, as mentioned earlier, career motivation is higher in volunteers who participate for the first time in a campaign, which is consistent with literature (Hustinx et al., 2008, p. 61), since ‘there is a net effect of years of volunteering on career enhancement motivations. The longer the volunteers have been involved, the less likely they stress this motive.’ At the same time, ‘the more experienced volunteers attached greater importance to values, enhancement, social, and protective motivations while the less experienced attached more importance to career and understanding motivations’ (Musick & Wilson, 2008, p. 64). The same authors mention that motives are linked to volunteers participation, since the more importance they devoted to career motivations, the less frequently they volunteered. Career motivation appears to be more important for younger volunteers (Briggs et al., 2009) since, for example, college students have stronger needs for career enhancement (Musick & Wilson, 2008). If we look at our data, our volunteers are, on average, 34 years old and around 24 per cent are students. Although career motivation is one of the least mentioned categories, it has some important consequences since volunteering is a very effective way of making connections with people and gaining experience and field skills (Beder & Fast, 2008), and also impacts positively on the volunteer’s daily life and future career (Pan, 2012). It is also important to mention that ‘is quite common for schools, colleges, and volunteer agencies to tout this as a reason for doing volunteer work. Indeed, some nonprofit organizations specifically use volunteer work to train unemployed people for paid jobs’ (Musick & Wilson, 2008, p. 65). Our data show that volunteers participating for the first time in the FBAH have some type of motivations that will change over time, since the experience during the first participation is deeply striking and has very positive impacts.

The fact that motivations related to group identification are more pronounced when volunteers have previous participation shows that, after the first experience, volunteers establish connections with the group, with the campaign and with the cause. Although group identification is a category with a weak value (2.98), the participation in FBAH can be a way to meet new people and work with friends (Bruyere & Rappe, 2007) and with different people. At the same time, FBAH campaign is an event of great reputation and wide public exposure, and literature mentions that there are some factors pertaining to the perceptions of a specific NPO that determine how worthy of support a given individual would believe it to be or not, and one of the factors is exactly the overall reputation of its management (Sargeant et al., 2004). This fact can also be an important element that makes volunteers, after the first participation, feel more connected to the group and to the organization.

None of the others motivations present significant differences according to previous participation.

Analyzing H₂—Is the volunteers satisfaction influenced by motivation type?—it was noticed that higher the volunteer’ motivations related to understanding and purposive categories, the greater was their satisfaction with the experience, and these were the two categories with greater importance. These results suggest that volunteers derive satisfaction from their work and recognize the meaning of their role in the event (Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011). Our data show that these categories (understanding and purposive) are the ones that most influence satisfaction, going in the same direction of other previous approaches (Bryen, 2006; Clary et al., 1998). It is important to mention that all volunteers have high levels of satisfaction, and so we can conclude that the experience with the campaign allows volunteers to meet their motivations. Finally, it is essential to emphasize here that coordinators who are concerned with the intention of volunteers to repeat their experience should strategize ways to provide learning opportunities (Ryan et al., 2001) and ways of meet the cause, in order to appeal to a range of volunteers, since it seems that literature related to motivations can bring out a suitable way of gaining insight into heterogeneity amongst volunteers (Dolnicar & Randle, 2007).

Analyzing H_4a, H_4b, and H_4c—volunteers satisfaction influences the intention to repeat the experience in the short term (next campaign), medium term (next two campaigns) and long term (next three campaigns)—we can see that satisfaction gained with the campaign influences the likelihood of voluntary participation in the following campaigns, although the intention to participate is a little smaller for the long term than for the short term, showing that satisfaction is appropriate for predicting duration of service in the short term (Chacon, Vecina, & Dávila, 2007). As mentioned earlier, all volunteers of our research have high levels of satisfaction and findings in the literature show that occasional volunteers satisfaction is a powerful factor in the decision to return (Beder & Fast, 2008), as well as a kind of facilitator capable of summarizing the influence of diverse variables (Chacon et al., 2007), and these outcomes suggest that satisfaction influences the intention to repeat and this will lead to the existence of experienced volunteers (Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011).

Conclusions, Limitations and Further Research

This research intends to understand what factors influence occasional volunteers decision of repeating their experience. Our results show that the most important motivations of occasional volunteers are related to the purposive factor, revealing the desire of these volunteers to contribute to the success of the event and the social cause, thereby demonstrating their concern and desire of contributing to a better society. We find that motivations change according to volunteers’ previous experiences. Volunteers were grouped into four levels according to their previous experience (no participation, low participation, medium participation, high participation), and it was found that volunteers who participated for the first time in FBAH campaign have higher values in motivations related to career and understanding than volunteers with previous participations. On the other side, volunteers with higher levels of previous participation (seven or more past participations in FBAH campaigns) have higher motivations related to group identification, showing that after the first experience, volunteers establish connections with the group and with the cause. We find that volunteers have certain category of motivations but after the first participation in FBAH campaign, motivations may change—probably meaning that this participation is very intense and has significant positive effects.

The study also explores if satisfaction with the experience in general is influenced by the type of motivation. All the volunteers present very high levels of satisfaction and we find that motivations related to purposive and understanding categories significantly affect the satisfaction of occasional volunteers. These results confirm the fact that volunteers are more satisfied when they meet their motivations. Our research did not find significant differences among volunteers who experienced the campaign for the first time (no previous participation) and all of those who have had previous participations (high level of previous participation), including those who had already attended seven or more of the previous campaigns.

This research shows that satisfaction of occasional volunteers influences the probability of repeating the experience in the short, medium and long term. So, we can say that satisfaction has an imperative influence on volunteers decision to return. Therefore, we obtain new insights that might improve volunteers’ management of FBAH. For example, coordinators worried with the intention of volunteer repeating their experience should plan learning opportunities and ways to make volunteers feel that they are helping others, the cause and the event, since these are the most important motivations which might influence satisfaction and the volunteers intention to repeat the experience.

This study has some limitations, but these may have significant implications for future research on occasional volunteerism. The first limitation is related with volunteers previous experience, since we measure it considering solely the number of previous participations in the campaigns by the volunteers. It would be interesting to consider different types of involvement according to different tasks. Another limitation of this study is the evaluation of the intention to repeat the experience. A large percentage (99.3 per cent) of volunteers indicated that they will participate in the next campaign. However, a longitudinal analysis may investigate whether they actually participate and this would be a very interesting approach in terms of future research. We can also mention, as a limitation, that in light of the responses rates, it is possible that those volunteers with higher levels of satisfaction are more likely to participate in this kind of survey than those with lower levels of satisfaction.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The author, João F. Proença, thanks Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT Portugal) for financial support to ADVANCE by the Multi-Year Funding Programme for R&D Units.

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