Leadership Effectiveness and Psychological Well-being: The Role of Workplace Spirituality

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with the work outcomes of intention to quit, job involvement and organization-based self-esteem (OBSE), and whether workplace spirituality plays a role in mediating the associations of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with work outcomes. The study is cross-sectional and non-experimental. Data were obtained from 630 information technology (IT) employees from South India, adopting ‘power calculations’. The analysis was performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows and LISREL version 8.72. Results reveal that leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being have a significant positive association with workplace spirituality, and this, in turn, has an impact on the work outcomes of intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE. Workplace spirituality can limit any negative associations of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with work outcomes. This research adds to the existing body of knowledge in the spirituality literature by drawing attention to the positive aspects of the interplay between spirituality, leadership transformation and well-being at work. The article concludes that building core values anchoring spirituality would lead to greater connectedness and healthier employee outcomes.

Keywords

Workplace spirituality leadership psychological well-being job involvement organization-based self-esteem India

Introduction

Spirituality is an inner science to create a conducive inner atmosphere. It is widely recognized as essential to human flourishing. The application and relevance of spirituality have become increasingly acceptable aspects in the workplace, including among leaders (Pawar, 2009). Spirituality generates and reinforces values that are reflected in an organization’s vision and culture. Spirituality in the workplace can exist without pressurizing individuals to buy into a particular belief or opinion; however, with reference to effective leadership, it involves experiencing and expressing spiritual values, such as integrity, and demonstrating spiritual behavior, such as expressing greater sensitivity towards individuals (Reave, 2005). Spirituality enables leaders to develop competence for dealing with challenges in the workplace. Those who long for greater purpose, typically described as leading with soul, can find fulfillment from spiritual sources (Ledbetter, 2017). Spirituality in the workplace, as an impetus for achieving organizational and individual outcomes, has gained momentum recently. As such, its antecedents and precedents have been extensively researched in combination, to measure individuals’ outcomes as a result of their work (for a review, see Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004; Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Milliman et al., 2003). This article adopts the connotations and implications of spirituality, in the context of the workplace, of Ashmos and Duchon (2000), who defined ‘workplace spirituality as the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context community’, and Mitroff and Denton (1999), who asserted that ‘workplace spirituality involves the effort to find one’s ultimate purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other people associated with work, and to have consistency (or alignment) between one’s core beliefs and the values of their organization’. As the individual needs to be connected with work and others at work, workplace spirituality is increasingly seen as essential (Khanna & Srinivas, 2000); therefore, the concept of workplace spirituality has received substantial attention in the literature. Some researchers opined that the notion has not yet been fully examined (Duchon & Plowman, 2005) and that it is still in the initial phase of rigorous investigation (Dent et al., 2005; Moore & Casper, 2006).

However, the concept of spirituality as a researchable area has gained importance and momentum in recent years. For example, Brown (2003) and Luis Daniel (2010) considered that the presence of spirituality makes an organization humanistic. It also improves wellness and meaningfulness (Schaufeli et al., 2006). Karakas (2010), meanwhile, found that spirituality enhances empowerment and makes individuals more complete. Schutte (2016) asserted that workplace spirituality has a plausible effect on leadership, which, in turn, increases job satisfaction, job involvement (Malik et al., 2017) and work engagement (Petchsawang & McLean, 2017). Moreover, spirituality enriches learning and innovative behaviour (Pandey et al., 2016, 2019).

Whilst contemporary notions of workplace spirituality are leading to positive, pragmatic effects on work outcomes, this topic remains less studied in India. There is an absence of serious attention and systematic treatment of the importance of human experience and spirituality. Moreover, observed evidence is seldom in the context of information technology (IT) employees, wherein a diversified workforce and culture are eminent. IT firms witness higher attrition, with the conditional and limited loyalty, and the lack of a sense of community, of most employees being viewed as the main reasons (Milliman et al., 1999). In the prevailing circumstances of the Indian IT industry, Sreeja and Mukherjee (2018) concluded that developing workplace spirituality generates strong belief systems and cultivates constructive employee behaviour. They also asserted that leadership, with necessary organizational support, will foster self-esteem and improve their alignment with the organization. Thus, this article considers that research and practice in the IT industry must be enriched for a better understanding of workplace spirituality and its implications.

Workplace spirituality is a critical dimension for IT employees due to the demanding nature of their work, entailing: creativity, an extremely important attribute for achieving team effectiveness (Luis Daniel, 2010); the need to interact with each other to share ideas and information (Srivastava et al., 2006; Tombaugh et al., 2011); the need to build strong connections, within one’s inner self and with each other (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000); the need to identify oneself with the team’s common goal(s) (Duchon & Plowman, 2005); and a desire to assist other people (Ingersoll, 2003). In this sense, the organization and individual will benefit in the presence of committed workplace spirituality practices (Fry, 2003), which evolve in a conducive climate in which employees perceive that how they are managed and how they relate to one another (Burke & Litwin, 1992) lead to contentment and happiness.

Understanding the intention to quit, which is termed as a cognitive expression or attitudinal direction (Siong et al., 2006), has been a focus of many studies. In these, ‘turnover intentions’ has been associated with antecedents like, among others, lack of commitment, poor performance (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011), job disengagement (Christian & Ellis, 2014) and working conditions (Abu Raddaha et al., 2012). The ‘intention to quit’ urges an individual to seek alternatives in other organizations, resulting in a dearth of talent, financial loss and high costs. This issue is systemic among Indian IT industries, resulting in knowledge-based and pecuniary losses (Khera & Divya, 2018). There is, therefore, a strong need to comprehend the organizational factors that impinge on the intention to quit, with researchers attempting to comprehend how to build an environment that stimulates a sense of belongingness and a sense that employees’ work is meaningful and necessary (DiMeglio et al., 2005).

In this vein, research that recognizes antidotes for the intention to quit is warranted, such as on organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) (Lapointe et al., 2011; Wei & Albright, 1998), job involvement (Kim & Hyun, 2017), leadership (Aria et al., 2019; Haque et al., 2019) and psychological well-being (McInerney et al., 2018; Rana & Javed, 2019). Therefore, this research focuses on the effectiveness of a leader, as perceived by their followers, and psychological well-being as precedents of work outcomes. In doing so, this article posits that the workplace spirituality construct will mediate and have an impact on the three observed work outcomes: capture effect (intention to quit), behavioural intention (job involvement) and admiration (OBSE).

The remainder of the article is organized as follows. The next section deals with the theoretical background and formulation of hypotheses. This is followed by a description of the methods used. Following the presentation and discussion of the results obtained, conclusions are presented, including theoretical and practical implications, limitations and directions for further study.

Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

This section explores the relevant literature on the relationship of the constructs under the study, that is, leadership effectiveness, psychological well-being, workplace spirituality and work outcomes, comprising intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE. Based on the discussion, pertinent hypotheses are developed.

Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being and Work Outcomes

Leadership is a central component in a work system as it creates a connection between the individuals and the system (Bolman & Deal, 1991). Leaders build values and enrich individual sprit through their effective practices, thus creating meaningful work (Pfeffer, 2003). The effectiveness needs to be understood from the point of view of their followers; therefore, this article uses the definition provided by Lord and Maher (1991, p. 11) of leadership ‘as the process of being perceived by others as a leader’, implying that ‘it is not the leader who acts but how his action is perceived by his followers’. However, while previous studies have examined leadership’s effectiveness on work outcomes, relatively little attention has been paid to the followers’ perspective. The rationale for considering followers’ perceptions is that the behaviour shown by the leaders indicates an individual’s organizational intentions (Levinson, 1965). Further, such behaviour can stimulate emotions and psychological attachment of the followers to remain in the organization because of their strong identification with, and perceived care of, their leaders (Herman, 2008).

A study among retail salespeople conducted by Firth et al. (2004) found that leaders providing emotional support led to enhanced job satisfaction and commitment and significantly controlled the intention to quit, as they reduced the causes of stressors. Similarly, leadership was inversely associated with intention to quit among employees of for-profit businesses (Martin & Epitropaki, 2001). Bycio et al.’s (1995) study among nursing professionals revealed that the intention to leave was reduced when the followers’ needs were satisfied by their leaders. In a similar vein, a participative management style with shared decision-making restored willingness to continue among healthcare employees (Angermeyer et al., 2009). Embracing the views of Shamir et al. (1993, p. 585) that ‘leadership serves as a link of interpretive orientations such that … followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, and the leader’s activities, goals, and ideology become congruent and complementary’, followers recognize intellectual stimulation and support by their leaders to become more proactive and independent, which enriches their job involvement (Sosik et al., 1997). For instance, if an employee observes that their leaders promote an exciting vision and high expectations, they also perceive expected active roles and show positive involvement (Menon, 2001).

The self-evaluation construct, that is, OBSE, is defined as ‘the perceived self-value that individuals have of themselves as organizational members acting within an organizational context’ (Lindsley et al., 1995). Thus, it reflects an individual’s understanding of self-competence, importance and worthiness in the organization (Pierce et al., 1989). In this sense, organizational leaders are in a position to prominently affect subordinates’ self-evaluation, through their attachment to their subordinates and the trust vested in them, which enriches OBSE (Lau et al., 2014). Notably, OBSE is mitigated by leader benevolence at higher levels and strengthened by lower levels of benevolence (Chan et al., 2013). Psychological well-being is a construct that includes intrapersonal features (Garcia, 2011) and is related to self-actualization and adoption. As proposed by Ryff (1989), it comprises ‘positive relationship, environmental mastery, self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth and purpose in life’. Therefore, it is readily perceived that an engaging atmosphere cultivating meaningful work will enhance individual involvement with the job. As observed by Judge and Bono (2001), an individual’s occupational role determines self-esteem: it creates a pathway for making their work meaningful and more valuable, resulting in higher job involvement and a reduction in the intention to quit. A clearly defined individual role will diminish ambiguity, with reduced stress leading to greater involvement. Such engagement will diminish the propensity to leave the organization. A significant relationship between psychological well-being and self-esteem has been reported by Moshki and Ashtarian (2010) and supported by the study of Devonish (2013). A study among mental health professionals conducted by Awan and Sitwat (2014) established the association of psychological well-being with self-esteem. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is formulated (see also Figure 1):

H1: Leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being will be negatively related to intention to quit and positively related to job involvement and OBSE.

Figure 1.

Source: The authors.

Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes

Workplace spirituality, as a construct of measuring an individual’s work outcomes, has been studied extensively by various researchers (e.g., Milliman et al., 2003; Reave, 2005). One of the work outcome constructs of this study, that is, intention to quit, which is defined as ‘as the extent to which an employee is planning to leave the organization’ (Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992) is inversely associated with a sense of community (Trott, 1996). In line with this, DiMeglio et al. (2005) ascertained the importance of environment, wherein the sense of community and connectedness reduces turnover intention. Another dimension of work outcome, that is, job involvement, which is an attitudinal variable, results from personal alignment with the work and the meaningfulness of life and has been found to be positively correlated with spirituality at work. On examining this relationship, a positive association between workplace spirituality and involvement at work has been found, with perceived support also moderating these constructs. As observed by Milliman et al. (1999), enhanced emotional engagement leads to a feeling of positivity in employees’ lives, which is further nourished in a spiritual work environment providing inherent motivation, thus enhancing the engagement of individuals at work (Fry, 2003). Kolodinsky et al. (2008) revealed that spirituality at work has a constructive relationship with involvement at work. A less assessed construct, but nevertheless an important one, sharing a relationship with workplace spirituality is OBSE, which makes employees perceive themselves to be an integral element of the organization. Milliman et al. (2003) found a positive association of spirituality at work with OBSE, which was further supported by Geh and Tan (2009) analysing job satisfaction in different organizational settings. Riasudeen and Prabavathy (2011) also stated a significant association of workplace spirituality and OBSE. In order to test the relationship, the following hypothesis is formulated (see also Figure 2):

H2: Workplace spirituality will be negatively related to intention to quit and positively related to job involvement and OBSE.

Figure 2.

Source: The authors.

Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being, Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes

Having discussed in earlier sections the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with work outcomes, and likewise the relationship of workplace spirituality with work outcomes, this article posits the existence of significant and overlapping relationships of the study’s constructs. Dehler and Welsh (1994) and Pawar (2008, 2009) reported significant relationships of leadership effectiveness with spirituality at the workplace. Sanders et al. (2003) suggested that leaders are rated as being effective by their followers if they exhibit superior initiative for intensified intuition and self-knowledge and possess more features of spirituality. These studies proposed that there is a need to measure leadership and the function of spirituality in the workplace. Ajala (2013) affirmed that people having psychological wellness understand the inherent spirituality in the workplace which affect their work outcome. As there is limited empirical evidence, thus revealing a research gap, this article asserts that there is a need to assess the mediating effect of workplace spirituality.

Given that leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being are expected to predict work outcomes, and that work spirituality predicts work outcomes, it is possible that work spirituality mediates the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed (see also Figure 3):

H3: Workplace spirituality will mediate the association of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with the intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE.

Figure 3.

Source: The authors.

Method

The study is cross-sectional and non-experimental. Data were obtained from 630 IT employees of South India adopting ‘power calculations’, as suggested by MacCallum et al. (1996). Respondents were contacted through an online survey method (Google forms). For data collection, Dillman’s (2011) ‘total design method’ was adopted, revised for online surveys. Every respondent was contacted through email, and subsequent mails, up to four times, over a time span of 5 days.

The survey instrument first measured leadership effectiveness using a scale developed by Wood and Winston (2007), comprising openness (10 items), responsibility (10 items) and answerability (10 items), with an internal consistency reliability score of 0.98. To measure psychological well-being, Ryff’s (1995) 18-item scale was adopted, with a reliability score of 0.96. Workplace spirituality was measured using a scale developed by Milliman et al. (2003), comprising sub-dimensions of meaning at work, sense of community and alignment of organizational values, with internal consistency scores of 0.88, 0.91 and 0.94, respectively. Milliman et al.’s (2003) modified scale was used to measure work outcomes consisting of the following sub-dimensions: intention to quit (α = 0.82); job involvement (α = 0.84); and OBSE (α = 0.93). A 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, was used in all measures of this study.

Results and Discussion

SPSS 20 for Windows and LISREL version 8.72 were used to perform preliminary analyses and model development, respectively. Statistical information in numerous areas was examined as a preliminary step to the data analyses. The outliers in the data were first identified; in the next step, errors were corrected, and then the accuracy of the data was examined, not considering any values beyond the permissible range. Reliability analyses confirmed the internal consistency of constructs, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.75 to 0.93, composite reliability (CR) above the prescribed value of 0.70, and the range of average variance extracted (AVE) ranging from 0.53 to 0.64. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) was performed to develop a measurement model after confirming normality, homogeneity, linearity and multicollinearity of the data collected.

In order to analyse workplace spirituality as a mediator, three models were developed: the first examined the direct relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being (independent variables) with work outcomes (dependent variables) (H1); the second examined the direct relationship of workplace spirituality with work outcomes (H2); and the third examined workplace spirituality as a mediator of the relationship of the independent and dependent variables (H3) (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Source: The authors.

The path analysis results indicated that all coefficient values were significant, with leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being establishing a significant negative relationship with intention to quit, emphasizing that the perceived effectiveness of leaders and greater well-being reduce the propensity to leave. Meanwhile, these constructs showed a positive and significant association with job involvement and OBSE, highlighting that the effectiveness of leaders and well-being enrich individuals’ engagement with the job and their self-esteem (see Figure 4 and Table 1). With regard to model fit, the combinational relative fit index was at acceptable levels (normed chi-square = 2.26, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.04, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.05, Bollen’s incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.99). Hence, H1 was accepted.

Table 1.

Results of Structural Model I

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Std. Error	Coefficient	t	R²
LE	Intention to quit	0.046	−0.21	−4.61*	0.25
	Job involvement	0.044	0.32	7.34*	0.45
	OBSE	0.042	0.38	9.06*	0.41
PWB	Intention to quit	0.048	−0.38	−7.85*	0.25
	Job involvement	0.047	0.44	9.38*	0.41
	OBSE	0.043	0.42	9.64*	0.45

Source: The authors.

Note: LE = Leadership effectiveness; PWB = psychological well-being; OBSE = organization-based self-esteem.

*Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

Structural Model II

The second model was developed in order to understand the relationship between workplace spirituality and work outcomes. The path analysis results (see Figure 5), as predicted, showed a significant relationship among the constructs, supporting H2.

Figure 5.

Source: The authors.

Furthermore, the relationship was found to be negative with the intention to quit and positive with job involvement and OBSE (see Table 2). This result implies that individuals feel attached to their job and experience high self-esteem in a spiritual organizational environment.

Table 2.

Results of Structural Model II

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Std. Error	Coefficient	t-Values	R²
WPS	Intention to quit	0.046	−0.51	−11.17*	0.26
	Job involvement	0.049	0.67	13.72*	0.45
	OBSE	0.046	0.64	13.88*	0.41

Source: The authors.

Note: WPS = workplace spirituality.

*Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

Structural Model III

It is observed from the results of path analysis that coefficient values showed a significant relationship among this study’s constructs (see Figure 6). Further, it can be inferred that leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being have a significant positive association with workplace spirituality, which, in turn, has an impact on work outcomes (see Table 3). It is also observed that the combinational relative fit index is at accepted levels (normed chi-square = 2.33, RMSEA = 0.03, SRMR = 0.04, IFI = 0.98).

Figure 6.

Source: The authors.

Table 3.

Results of Structural Model III

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Std. Error	Path Coefficient	t-Values	R²
LE	WPS	0.047	0.51	10.85*	0.53
PWB	WPS	0.041	0.35	8.62*	0.53
WPS	Intention to quit	0.053	−0.53	−9.86*	0.28
	Job involvement	0.061	0.69	11.34*	0.47
	OBSE	0.058	0.66	11.50*	0.44

Source: The authors.

Note: *Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

In order to identify workplace spirituality’s mediating effect, this study adhered to the condition recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986). In the model, the mediation effect can be observed if the X and Y (c) relationship disappears or gets smaller (i.e., c' = 0 or c' < c) in the presence of a mediator. If the relationship disappears, it indicates full mediation, and if gets smaller, it indicates partial mediation. For clarity and ease of understanding, the mediation of workplace spirituality was described in two forms. The first involves workplace spirituality as a mediator in explaining the relationship between leadership effectiveness and work outcomes (Figure 7). The second involves workplace spirituality as a mediator in explaining the relationship between psychological well-being and work outcomes (Figure 8). In the presence of workplace spirituality, the value of the direct effect grew smaller, indicting its mediating effect on the relationship between leadership effectiveness and intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE, thus supporting one half of H3. However, it can only be stated as partial mediation, since the extent of mediation does not satisfy the prescribed value of complete mediation, that is, 0.80 (see Table 4).

Figure 7.

Source: The authors.

Figure 8.

Source: The authors.

Table 4.

Direct, Indirect and Total Effects

Path	(c')	(a * b)	c = (c' + ab)	ab/c
LE → WPS → intention to quit	−0.06	−0.15	−0.21	0.71
LE → WPS → job involvement	0.11	0.21	0.32	0.66
LE → WPS → OBSE	0.22	0.16	0.38	0.42

Source: The authors.

Note: (c') Denotes direct effect, (a * b) indirect effect, c = (c' + ab) total effects, and ab/c extent of mediations.

On examining the extent of workplace spirituality’s mediation on the relationship between psychological well-being and work outcomes, it was found that workplace spirituality mediated it and explained intention to quit (27%), job involvement (30%) and OBSE (24%); thus, workplace spirituality partially mediated the effects of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being on the work outcomes, supporting H3 (see Tables 4 and 5).

Table 5.

Direct, Indirect and Total Effects

Path	(c')	(a * b)	c = (c' + ab)	ab/c
PWB → WPS → intention to quit	−0.27	−0.10	−0.37	0.27
PWB → WPS → job involvement	0.30	0.13	0.43	0.30
PWB → WPS → OBSE	0.31	0.10	0.41	0.24

Source: The authors.

Note: (c') Denotes direct effect, (a * b) indirect effect, c = (c' + ab) total effects, and ab/c extent of mediations.

Conclusion

This study attempted to shed light on the relevance of spirituality in the workplace in the presence of perceived leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being and work outcomes. Though many of the issues might not have been fully addressed by this research, a contribution has been made in helping understand that an innate feeling of connectedness with others would bring constructive work outcomes. This research adds to the body of knowledge on spirituality literature by drawing attention to the optimistic aspects of spirituality, leadership transformation and well-being at work. In conclusion, building core values anchoring spirituality would lead to greater connectedness and healthier employee outcomes.

Implications

This study is an initial attempt to address certain limitations in the previous empirical examination of spirituality at work through employing a rigorous pragmatic technique to examine the proposed relations. This study employed emergent propositions on the associations of dimensions that are significant for achieving desirable work outcomes. It measured not only the relationship of leadership effectiveness, as perceived by the followers, and psychological well-being of employees with work outcomes but also the mediating effect of workplace spirituality on such relations. The outcomes confirmed the hypothesized relationships within the dimensions of this study. The article has advanced a conceptual framework depicting the influence of spiritual values on attitudinal outcomes. Individuals’ sense of community creates a connectedness within oneself and with others (Hicks, 2003; Mirvis, 1997), resulting in less propensity to leave the organization, higher involvement in the job and greater feelings of self-esteem in the organization.

Based on the study results, this article contends that spirituality in the workplace alone cannot bring about desirable attitudinal outcomes, as proposed by Milliman et al. (2003), but rather has to be shaped in the presence of perceived leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being. In a sense, this article proposes that the leader must be a catalyst in fostering workplace spirituality and also in creating an environment in which spirituality emerges, inevitably enhancing individual well-being. The study outcomes reveal, with empirical evidence, prospects for improving values and the growth of employees.

Therefore, the effective practice of spirituality at work will have a positive effect on the alignment of individuals with the values of the organization (Vallabh & Singhal, 2014). Such practices will also augment organizational change and development through greater worker involvement, as they tend to improve employees’ participation. Furthermore, defining and categorizing spirituality, subjectively or objectively, is difficult (Neal, 1997); therefore, designing feedback mechanisms for continual evaluation of workplace spirituality effectiveness could be worthwhile to improve work outcomes. The authors suggest designing forums to create awareness, both among leaders and employees, on promoting spirituality. The authors also recommend a protective environment wherein employees learn from others through making mistakes, which should nourish workplace spirituality that will alleviate or help avoid humiliation and conflict (Brown, 2003; Rego & Pina, 2008). Training programmes highlighting the spiritual quotient for improving abilities and alignment with others and organizational vision should be initiated. In the absence of spirituality, organizational effectiveness is negatively affected, leading to turnover and absenteeism (Dalton & Mesch, 1991); therefore, by analysing the propensity to leave and employees’ non-alignment, managers can gain insights into employees’ feelings and working conditions. To summarize, the authors contend that making work meaningful, generating a sense of belongingness and engendering a coherence of values will pave the way for spiritually inspired employees, resulting in improved work outcomes.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The basic assumption of this study is that the respondents have a natural consideration and understanding of workplace spirituality as an innate element of human interaction. The study deployed a cross-sectional design, wherein unrecognized causation could be a possible limitation. The survey was based on self-reported measures, and there is, therefore, a possibility of personal bias. Hence, the lack of cross-validation by supervisors, with the inclusion of related measures, may limit the results of this study. Furthermore, there is a need for assessment with additional positive organizational behaviour variables, such as organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), work attitude, commitment and innovative work behaviour, and negative constructs such as stress and burnout. The profound involvement required of employees in practising spirituality in the workplace might lead to resistance to change; therefore, future research should examine the consequences of spirituality at work. This study used a one-time measurement; hence, further assessment is needed to examine the consistency and direction of the causation of workplace spirituality over a period of time. Finally, the nuances of spirituality at work may be better understood with qualitative research.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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