Abstract
This study examines the linkages between Taiwan’s Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) and universities. It employs the government–university (G–U) relation of triple helix framework to assess collaboration patterns between ITRI and the top universities of Taiwan over two phases of economic development, that is, the catching-up phase in the 1990s and the subsequent post catching-up phase over the 2000s. We highlight the collaborative dynamics in terms of ITRI’s (a) (co-) evolving knowledge capital, (b) strategic collaboration mode, (c) co-publication in scientific papers, (d) co-owned patents, (e) forward and backward citations and (f) science-based patents. Our systematic review of the role of ITRI in both catching-up and post catching-up phases will provide a useful guide for policy makers in other economies (such as Malaysia and Hong Kong) that aspire to define a similar role for their public research institutions.
Introduction
According to Chang, Hsu and Tsai (1999), there are basically three approaches used by the PRIs to support the industrial upgrading process:
Diffusing mature technology to local firms and facilitating their commercialisation in the early phase of catching-up; Reinforcing the industrial R&D system and accelerating R&D efficiency for local industries in order to capture market opportunities and Defining the technological requirements to help local industries develop advanced technologies. The PRIs provide a range of technological and business assistance, such as intellectual property rights (IPRs) leverage (e.g., through IP banks and R&D consortiums) and financial and legal advice. This is to establish an innovation platform to facilitate the R&D conglomerates in developing their strategic industries (Shiu, Wong & Hu, 2013).
The Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) of Taiwan has been regarded as one of the most important agents for developing and achieving the functional high-tech industrial structure of Taiwan (Chang et al., 1999; Chu, Lin, Hsiung & Liu, 2006; Jan & Chen, 2006; Mathews & Hu, 2007). ITRI was established in 1973 with the mission of upgrading the technological capability of Taiwan’s small and medium enterprises (SMEs). It was mandated to provide various kinds of technical support (such as technology transfer and the provision of technical training programmes) to local firms in both the self-evolving clusters (such as the bicycle and machinery industries in central Taiwan) and government-planned clusters (such as the semiconductor and electronics industries in northern Taiwan). ITRI has 12 R&D campuses around Taiwan, each focusing on specific research areas which are targeted to advance the regional industrial activities. ITRI’s headquarters is located in Hsinchu Science-based Park (HSP). It plays a role in supporting regional R&D activities, particularly in areas of semiconductors, flat panel displays, biomedical devices, broadband/mobile communications and nanotechnology.
HSP is recognised as one of the most successful high-tech industrial clusters in the world. It was established in subject to a governing institutional body that allowed high potential high-tech companies to be located in the park. The companies enjoy considerable advantages, such as tax holidays for the first five years and tax concessions on industrial upgrading initiatives. Over the past few decades, HSP witnessed a strategic integration of various industrial entities that configured a self-sufficient, closely integrated industrial value chain—enabling the cluster to connect upstream R&D activities with downstream mass production operations. It has created a well-functioning network that interconnects industry and academia. The network is complemented by professionals and graduates from two renowned universities—National Chiao Tung University and National Tsing Hua University—as well as many returnees from abroad carrying with them state-of-the-art technologies and intellectual capital (Matthews, 2010; Hu, 2011). In addition, there are six national research laboratories (i.e., the National Synchrotron Radiation Research Centre, the National Nano Device Laboratories, the National Space Organization, the National Centre for High-Performance Computing, the National Instrument Technology Research Centre and the National Chip Implementation Centre) located in HSP to offer the high-tech companies the R&D and professional support for new product and process development.
ITRI’s R&D activities enabled HSP to become an innovation hub during Taiwan’s catching-up phase in the 1990s, during which the renowned leading manufacturers of semiconductor chips, computers and optoelectronic products started up. Since 2001, more than 80 new firms have been spun off by ITRI, including leading firms in high-technology industries such as United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC) and Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC) in semiconductors, Mirle Automation Corporation in industrial automation and—most recently—the Phalanx Biotech Group for gene expression profiling services. Many of these firms originated in the ITRI R&D laboratories and grew either through a number of technology transfer programmes or strategic R&D alliance projects. These firms have now attained significant positions in the global production value chains for high-technology products and processes.
Three generic sequential approaches used by ITRI for upgrading industrial activities and assisting Taiwan’s industrial development over the last four decades (from the 1970s–2000s) can be identified as followed (Jan & Chen, 2006):
Strategic proxy: On behalf of the Ministry of Economic Affairs of Taiwan, ITRI implemented industrial policies and provided incubator facilities for the development of new industrial firms. Facilitating engine: ITRI has a role in advancing R&D capabilities of firms within the government-targeted sectors. Technical support: ITRI provides technical assistance for firms to achieve required standards in both local and international markets.
Taiwan is now in a transitional stage, moving towards developing a sustainable knowledge-based economy. Facing competition pressure in cutting-edge technologies from advanced countries, as well as cost competition from the emerging latecomers (such as China and India), many Taiwanese SMEs recognised the need to attain science-based technological capability and endogenise the process of structural change in order to compete in the global market. ITRI is aware of the increasing demands for science-based technological capability in the local industries, and has initiated various R&D collaboration programmes with the selected research-based universities since the 2000s in order to advance its scientific knowledge stock.
This study attempts to extend earlier assessments of University–Industry–Government (U–I–G) links (e.g., Chang et al., 1999), Industry–Government (I–G) links (e.g., Jan & Chen, 2006) and U–I links (e.g., Mathews & Hu, 2007; Shiu et al., 2013). It does so by exploring the collaborative dynamics in publication and patenting activities between ITRI and its academic partners in universities (G–U) that took place in the transitional context towards a knowledge-based economy from the 1990s to the 2000s. We examine the longitudinal datasets and relations using scientometric indicators of G–U links (proxied by co-publications and co-owned patents) and science-based technological capabilities (proxied by publications, patents and citations) that are most germane to our discussion on G–U links. By taking ITRI as an example, we attempt to explore the G–U linkages in effecting Taiwan’s transitional stage through (a) science (basic R&D), technology (applied R&D) and science-based technological production (experimental R&D) trends; (b) the pattern of networks in the G–U learning system; and (c) the targeted emerging science and technology areas.
Methodology: Framework and Data Sources
A national innovation system (NIS) is the classical concept in the stream of evolutionary economics for examining the interactions of institutions that determine the rate and direction of science and technological innovation in an economy. A triple helix of relations between university, industry and the government (U–I–G) is then designed as a guiding tool to map the interaction of institutions in the NIS. It focuses on specifying selection mechanisms. The model focuses on the interactions among the three institutions to explain the determinants of science and technology development. The variation among institutions is the process of co-evolution, in which the institutions mutually shape each other to achieve a common set of goals and objectives. Functional communication is central to this analytical approach; for instance, one can study the relationship between universities, industries and government in developing a science and technology economy. The model is thus useful for case studies which can be enriched by focusing on the important relevance of the three different dimensions of the model (Etzkowitz, 2002; Leydesdorff, 2006).
This study attempts to explore the collaboration dynamics between ITRI and universities in publishing and patenting activities during the 1990s and 2000s. We use a G–U (government–university) link in the triple helix (university–industry–government, U–I–G) model as a narrative for constructing and articulating ITRI’s case in this aritlce. The interactions between the government and university are as shown in Figure 1. The functions of the government-funded PRIs are always aimed at advancing the capabilities and productivity of the private sector. On the other hand, the function of the university is to develop competent human capital and create basic knowledge in research activities for long-term development. The mission of the two institutions is mutually reinforcing and complementary, expressing the collaboration synergy for innovation capability in the economy as a whole. The collaboration platform between PRIs and universities is the source of a critical mass of Schumpeterian entrepreneurs. The platform also functions as an entity that is capable of identifying the opportunities in science and technology that can be leveraged from the high tech industrial structure of an economy.
Studies discussing the impact of the U–I–G model have grown significantly over recent decades (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000; Leydesdorff & Meyer, 2007; Park & Leydesdorff, 2010). There is also a long list of studies exploring various U–I relations and their R&D activities (Mathews & Hu, 2007; Lei, Zhao, Zhang, Chen, Huang & Zhao, 2012; Shiu et al., 2013; Wong, 2013). Following the pioneering design of these earlier studies, we operationalise the G–U relationships in terms of co-authorships and co-ownerships in the SCI literature and patents granted in the US patent office (USPTO), respectively. These datasets have been used widely, allowing us to provide numerous snapshots of knowledge exchanges between the two entities over time. This was made possible due to the availability, analytical comprehensiveness and comparability across different entities within or across economies. We employed the historical series of scientific publications indexed in the SCI database and patents granted at the USPTO from 1990 to 2013, aiming to provide a comprehensive empirical analysis for ITRI. The data series are separated into two phases, that is, the catching-up phase in the1990s and the subsequent phase during the 2000s, for the following reasons:
Catching-up phase (1990s): ITRI was devoted to supporting industrial technology upgrading and performing applied R&D related activities for industrial development. Post-catching-up phase (2000s): the role of ITRI evolved towards supporting the emergence of a new high-tech industrial structure, collaborating with universities for science-based technological development.
Table 1 summarises the quantified proxies used in this study to assess the collaborative dynamism between ITRI and its university networks for science-based technologies. It provides us with a guide to assess the dynamism of ITRI and its university networks for science-based technologies.
Proxies for the Assessment of the Collaborative Dynamism of G–U Links
This article is structured as follows: the knowledge capital of ITRI and its strategic approach in building new multi-agent structures in Taiwan’s post catching-up phase is reviewed in the section ‘Knowledge Capital and Strategic Approach of ITRI’. The section ‘Scientific Production’ discusses the scientific production resulting from the bilateral relationship between ITRI and its universities network, followed by the discussion of technological production in the section ‘Technological Production’. We then conclude our findings in the section ‘Conclusion’.
Knowledge Capital and Strategic Approach of ITRI
ITRI was established in 1973 to build and diffuse technical capabilities across a broad spectrum of high-technology industries that would allow Taiwan to witness a structural change in its industrial economy. ITRI initiated its first partnership project with the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1975 to develop indigenous capability in Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The project was intended to achieve a co-evolution process which would enable semiconductor industries of Taiwan to connect the progression of CMOS technology with the production of consumer electronic products. ITRI spun off two semiconductor foundry companies, TSMC and UMC, in 1980s to provide silicon wafer fabrication services for global fabless firms on one hand, and germinate a centre satellite system to connect various entities in the entire technological value chain of Taiwan on the other hand. The system is used as a mechanism to diffuse CMOS technology capability to the entities of the value chain.
For the mission of diffusing capabilities across high-tech industries, ITRI has been committed in providing various training programmes for university graduates to perform industrial upgrading and research activities, as well as supporting its R&D personnel to create spin-off entities. Figure 2 demonstrates the contribution of ITRI’s R&D manpower development in the early catching-up phase, with 81 per cent circulated in the industrial sectors. This is particularly evident in the semiconductor and electronics industries, which emerged as the most essential drivers of Taiwan’s economic structural change in the catching-up phase.
ITRI is a government agency mandated to perform diffusion of technological knowledge to industries through various means, including technology projects, technology transfer, licensing, collaboration, training programmes and spin-offs. Table 2 indicates ITRI’s intellectual inputs and outputs since the catching-up stage of 2000–2011. The ratio of R&D funding generated from the public sector (mainly from MOEA) to that of the private sector has been around 1:1, demonstrating the commercialisation value and industrial connections of ITRI’s R&D activities. With more than 70 per cent of the total employees in ITRI having higher education, the high annual turnover rate (8–18 per cent) has contributed to direct knowledge diffusion into the economy while simultaneously accommodating the variations in manpower demand of the industrial cycle. Numerous technical training programmes, technology transfer and licensing, and technology service activities also show the effect of manpower and knowledge diffusion derived from ITRI’s intellectual activities. In particular, the significant increase of formation of R&D partnerships and spin-offs during the 2000s demonstrates that ITRI’s accumulated innovation capability has reached a significant milestone, whereby its R&D activities have been moving from pure applied research in to a judicious mix of basic and applied research activities. The close R&D linkages between ITRI and the top universities in Taiwan are evidence of this.
Portfolios of ITRI’s Intellectual Inputs and Outputs, 2000–2013
In 2000, ITRI established an IP platform in the form of the Technology Transfer and Service Centre (TTSC) to develop technology transfer and service regulations, upgrade the IP information system to promote innovative research environments, and implement effective licensing mechanisms. The production of ‘quality patents’ is the goal of ITRI’s patenting strategy.
In order to utilise and leverage IP value and acquire multiple effects of IP utilisation, ITRI adopted five channels:
Technology Transfers to upgrade and transform Taiwan’s traditional industries. The government is involved at an early stage of R&D development, and is committed to transferring the R&D findings and capabilities to the industry. This approach is useful to leverage resources and technology for Taiwan’s SMEs which have fairly limited capital and manpower. Spin-offs to spawn new areas of specialisation. ITRI’s spin-off policy was first announced in 1990. Thereafter, 12 spin-off companies were established under that policy, 13 companies benefited from ITRI incentives and six companies were established with ITRI’s assistance. In addition, a total of 15,877 employees have left ITRI, with an average staff turnover rate of 20 per cent per year. Most of them have been absorbed by the industries; with a large number of them contributing to the development of the semiconductor industry (Hu, 2011). These spin-off companies, along with the R&D manpower development, played an effective role in diffusing technology capability to the industry, and thus facilitated the establishment of Intellectual Property (IP) knowledge capital for Taiwan’s industries. Incubation to incubate start-ups or innovative companies. ITRI has established open labs and an incubation centre with the goal of incubating innovative companies by sharing and applying ITRI’s accumulated R&D knowledge, personnel, administration experience and other domain knowledge. Patent Auctions to encourage trading of patents. ITRI has provided a market platform for individuals or firms to trade their utility patents. IP Pools or IP Packages to develop a strong position in the patent negotiation process and take the lead in developing new technologies and setting standards. Many Taiwanese firms—especially those which produce TFT-LCD products—experienced a series of infringement charges from leading Japanese and Korean companies, such as Sharp and Samsung. In response to these charges, the Taiwanese government established Taiwan’s Cutting-edge Technology R&D Centre for TFT-LCD to advance research capacity for TFT-LCD related products. Additionally, ITRI was empowered in 2000 to acquire mutual patent authorisation by means of R&D cooperation with other entities in innovation systems (IP Pool). Since then, ITRI has been active in establishing its patent portfolio and assigning patents to the collaborating firms when necessary for defence and negotiation reasons.
In early 2000, ITRI saw itself emerging as a proactive agent in Taiwan’s innovation system, and thus attempted to establish a collaborative structure with the public research universities. The structure was also seen as a response to the enactment of the ‘Science and Technology Basic Act’ (a Bayh-Dole like act) in 1999. The act was enacted to leverage innovative resources from various entities in the innovation system and to encourage more research activities in order to advance the technological competitiveness of the economy. Many public universities responded to this Act and worked in partnership with ITRI in joint research and co-patenting activities. ITRI in return has agreed to give the academic scholars from the selected public universities access to specific equipment, and encouraged networking between the academic scholars and the researchers of ITRI. ITRI targeted six major research topics in its joint research programmes with the selected public universities, targeting telecommunications and chips, optical-electronics and semiconductors, micro-nano technology, nano-materials, bio-medical technology and environmental technology.
There are six research centres co-established with the selected local public universities (Table 3). These centres are endowed to organise annual forums, seminars and conference proceedings for the purpose of knowledge sharing and strengthening interaction between the paired entities. Table 4 details the allocated budgets of ITRI for each targeted science-based technology. The budgets ranged from US$1499k to US$4448k. Communication and chips and semiconductor and optics-related technologies emerged as the priorities of ITRI in the process of seeking new competitive advantages for Taiwan.
Besides the various collaboration programmes with domestic universities, ITRI also engaged with universities and research institutions abroad to advance its research activities. ITRI has bilateral relationships with Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST); Russia’s Moscow State University and Ioffe Physics Research Association; USA’s Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford Research Institute and University of California, Berkeley; Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) of Australia; and Applied Research Organization (TNO) of the Netherlands. Joint research was conducted on nano-structure simulation, flat panel materials, communications, robotics, creative platforms, information security, multimedia, solar cells, micro sensors and nano fluids.
The Themes and Priorities of Collaborative Research Projects of ITRI-University Networks, 2003–2012
Budget (US$1,000) for Collaborative Projects between ITRI and the Selected Universities, 2003–2012
Scientific Production
Figure 3 depicts the scientific production of ITRI. The growth of publications of ITRI in the 1990s (the catch-up phase) is gradual. ITRI produced approximately from 96 to 200 scientific publications a year. The publications co-authored with university researchers made up about 33 to 45 per cent of the total publications. ITRI was not active in scientific activities; its role was to support local firms in seizing market opportunities, and thus basic research was not the priority in ITRI’s targeted activities. ITRI witnessed tremendous growth in scientific production in the 2000s. ITRI’s affiliated research centres in the six targeted public universities record the highest contribution of scientific publications, collectively contributing about 45 to 60 per cent of total scientific publications of ITRI. The six targeted public universities emerged as the leading collaborators for ITRI for the production of scientific knowledge in the post catching-up period. The estimated take-off point for ITRI’s production of publications is 2004. This timing coincides with the launch of collaborative research projects of ITRI. The projects eventually gave rise to dynamism in G–U relationship of ITRI that subsequently led to high production of joint publications.
Two universities, NTHU and NCTU, emerged as the most productive partners of ITRI in producing scientific publications. Each contributed about 18 per cent of the total ITRI-university publications (see Figure 4). In the catching-up phase, these two universities focused their function on basic research and teaching for students in tertiary education. While they were productive in supplying science and engineering graduates to support the upgrading of high-tech industries in Hsinchu Science Park (Mathews & Hu, 2007), they are now performing as institutions capable of transferring technology/solutions to industries and patenting and commercialising research findings through new start-ups. They cooperate with ITRI and other actors in the innovation system to define new industrial structures for Taiwan Semiconductor Systems (Shiu et al., 2013). Many graduates who worked in collaborative labs have subsequently started new businesses to provide technologies or solutions for industries.
Table 5 records the prominent fields in joint scientific research activities within ITRI-university relation. Applied physics, electrical and electronics engineering and material science were the most prominent of the joint research activities. This number reflects the efforts in advancing the development potential of Taiwan’s science-based technologies, particularly semiconductor-related industries. Many engineers and scientists in the G–U network appear to have shown interest in spawning new areas of specialisation from semiconductor technologies.
Top 10 Fields of Research from ITRI-University Networks by Number of Counts in SCI, 1973–2012
Table 6 assesses the impact of scientific publications produced by the ITRI-university networks. Most publications appear to have built upon knowledge from outside the network. The backward citations (without self-citations) increased from 471 in 1990, to 3310 in 2007. What is remarkable in the trend of publications is the increasing importance of scientific knowledge to the ITRI-university joint research activities. The forward citations total and forward citations per paper have increased noticeably since 2000, indicating dynamism in co-evolution between the production of new knowledge and its potential for science-based technological development.
Backward and Forward Citations of Publications of ITRI-University Networks
Technological Production
While there are many activities of ITRI which were intended to benefit the public sector and lead Taiwan’s industrial development, ITRI’s patenting activities also give a significant impetus to IP development in the private sector. Figure 5 depicts ITRI’s patenting trend from 1990 to 2012. ITRI witnessed a significant increase in patents production since 2005.
In response to the enactment of the ‘Science and Technology Basic Act’ in 1999, ITRI intensified licensing royalty collection and raised patent licensing incentive rewards in order to diversify its technology transfer strategy on the one hand, and gain from the matching grants offered by the government on the other hand 1 . ITRI has adopted various licensing models, such as early-stage sponsorship (rather than early-stage licensing), international collaborative licensing, cross-licensing and patent licensing to enhance its patent utilisation.
ITRI has also been greatly extending its collaboration with firms and other public research institutes in its co-patenting activities, especially universities. Figure 6 shows the number of co-ownership patenting partners of ITRI during the catching-up phase and subsequent post catching-up phase. In the catching-up phase, ITRI was acting as an important agent to diffuse and internalise as much knowledge as possible in order to assist the industrial upgrading as a whole. Consequently, the collaborations with universities, in terms of co-owned patents, were few and not significant. However, the role of ITRI shifted in the 2000s from a knowledge processor to a knowledge agency, aiming at securing cutting-edge knowledge and technology appropriation through bridging the knowledge gap between universities and leading local firms. It is clear that the role of ITRI is co-evolving with industrial development in Taiwan—changing from an intermediary sourcing and assimilating foreign technologies, into an agency developing new technologies with local and international entities. Figure 7 shows the scientific linkages in terms of number of scientific-related publications cited in ITRI’s patents 2 . ITRI witnessed a significant rise in the number of science-based backward citations per patent during the post catching-up period.
Table 7 shows the top ten co-patenting partners of ITRI from 2000–2011. Half of the top ten co-assignees are leading public universities in Taiwan, including National Tsing Hua University, National Taiwan University, National Chiao Tung University, National Central University and National Sun Yat Sen University. Among the top ten co-assignees, Taiwan’s TFT-LCD Association is listed as the most prolific partner of ITRI. This is largely attributed to the fierce patent litigation attacks on the Taiwanese SMEs from the competitors in the global TFT-LCD industry. The remaining four co-assignees are leading companies in the machinery, optical, semiconductor and chemical sectors.
ITRI’s Co-patenting Partners, 2000–2011
The R&D collaboration model between ITRI and universities in the catching-up period was based on a sub-contracting model (Mode 1). The Ministry of Economic Affairs of Taiwan was the core funder of ITRI, and mandated ITRI to sub-contract some of ITRI’s projects to universities on an ad-hoc basis. Many projects under this model were ineffective in building G-U links for science-based technologies. ITRI launched a new collaboration model (Mode 2) in 2003 to address such problems, targeting at the strategic research topics and long-term cooperation agendas with the top universities specialising in those specific research areas. Figure 8 shows the number of projects and allocated funds forbothMode1 and Mode2 types of collaboration. The number of projects under Mode 2 indicates the consistent efforts of ITRI in building a long term G–U relationship with the public universities for science-based technological development. There has been a consistent effort in co-patenting applications between ITRI and universities to secure science-based technological innovation rents in the US market. The ITRI-university networks are capable of securing 10 to 40 per cent of their patent applications as IP protections (granted patents) in the US market (see Table 8).
Table 9 details the backward and forward citations of patents granted to the ITRI-university networks. The networks have yet to witness any significant growth patterns in either backward or forward citations. The impact of patents granted to ITRI-university networks remains to be observed.
Co-patenting Activities between ITRI and the Six Selected Public Universities, 2003–2012
Backward and Forward Patent Citations of ITRI-University Networks
Conclusion
Table 10 summarises our observations. We began this article by elucidating the role of ITRI in the catching-up period and the development of capabilities in the government’s targeted industries. We observe that the G–U development for science-based technologies was not made a priority in the process of Taiwan’s catching-up phase. The lack of G–U links in ITRI’s strategic model is particularly evident in co-publishing and co-patenting activities. The collaboration projects of ITRI with academics in the public universities during the catching-up period were implemented on an ad-hoc basis.
The Roles, Strategic Approaches and G–U Models of PRIs
The post catching-up phase in Taiwan witnessed the role of ITRI evolving towards supporting the emergence of the new high tech (science-based) industrial structure. We provided an overview of ITRI’s knowledge structure established during the post catching-up phase. The strategic approach of ITRI then dealt consistently with long-term collaborative research agend as to advance the targeted science-based technologies. Although the role of universities might seem less significant in supporting the functions of ITRI during that catching-up period, they emerged in the post catching-up phase as the defining partners for ITRI in producing scientific knowledge and science-based technologies. Applied physics, engineering sciences and material sciences are the three predominant fields in co-publishing activities between ITRI and universities. This reflects the attempts to spawn new science-based technologies (TFT-LCD, optics, etc.) derived from the core competencies of Taiwan’s semiconductor industries. The basic research activities conducted in the G–U network emerged to support the development of industrial science-based technologies. The activities which are collectively oriented towards industrial applications/products are intended to encourage the emergence of a science-based technological industrial structure in Taiwan.
This study extends the study of PRIs by Shiu et al. (2013) to include the managerial implications in the pursuit of defining the role of PRIs and of critical milestones of industrial development. Our longitudinal trends in networks of ITRI-university relation have provided insights to understanding the dynamic roles of PRIs in supporting technological upgrading and the dynamic G–U networks for industrial development. The findings provide a useful guide in defining the role of PRIs for policy makers in other newly industrialising economies, and establishing a functional collaborative G–U model for science-based technological development.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The support from Malaysian Chinese Research Center (MCRC) and funding from University Malaya HIR grant (UM.C/625/1/HIR/MOHE/ASH/04) for this research project is gratefully acknowledged. Wong acknowledges the support from the Taiwan Fellowship Program and the National Tsing Hua University of Taiwan for hosting a research fellowship.