The Attraction and Retention of Black Woman Actuaries

Abstract

The STEM disciplines are characterized by a shortage of women and actuarial science is no exception. This phenomenon is even more prevalent where black women are concerned. The purpose of this study was to investigate the internal and external factors that contributed to black women in South Africa choosing mathematics in school and actuarial science at university, and ultimately qualifying and persisting in the field. This multiple case study investigated the experiences of six black women qualified actuaries in South Africa. Narratives and interviews were used to collect data detailing experiences in three phases: choosing mathematics in school, choosing actuarial science at university and persisting with their studies, and persisting in the field. Thematic analysis was conducted. The results indicate that there were multiple external factors that had contributed to their choices, but the greatest determining internal factor was self-efficacy. Aspects that enhance self-efficacy are discussed from which management practice recommendations are made.

Keywords

Actuary female women gender black South Africa

Introduction

In both developed and emerging economies, women continue to be under-represented in STEM disciplines, more especially in actuarial science (Actuarial Society of South Africa [ASSA], 2015). This is attributed to, among others, the negative effect of gender stereotyping concerning women’s abilities in male-dominated disciplines (Smeding, 2012). In addition, racial and cultural stereotypes continue to present stumbling blocks for women in STEM careers (Ong, Wright, Espinosa, & Orfield, 2011). This under-representation has been a concern for decades, and research has been conducted on the barriers to entry for women (Glass, Sassler, Levitte, & Michelmore, 2013). However, less research has been conducted on factors that attract and retain women to and in STEM fields, particularly in actuarial science. In addition, we know even less about what attracts and retains black women actuaries and actions that managers can take to increase the likelihood of black women becoming actuaries. The purpose of this study is to investigate the internal and external factors that contribute to the attraction and retention of black women in the actuarial profession in South Africa.

The article commences with background to the study and an overview of literature pertaining to the attraction and retention of women actuaries at different phases, namely, schooling, during studies and persisting with an actuarial career. Next, we explicate the research design, followed by findings and a discussion which integrates more literature on the topic. The article concludes with recommendations and implications for managers.

Background

The actuarial profession involves applying analytical, statistical and mathematical skills (ASSA, 2016). South African students who wish to study actuarial science begin their studies at university and must complete a total of 16 exams, followed by a three-year work-based skills programme before being recognized as a qualified actuary (ASSA, 2016). It can take anything from 2 to 10 years (post-degree studies) to qualify. Qualified actuaries who are black comprise 19 percent of all the qualified actuaries in the country (ASSA, 2016). Black is a term used to denote African, Indian and Coloured people in South Africa (South Africa, 1998). In 2016, the entire female population of actuaries comprised 264 women, who constitute 23 per cent of the total population. Currently, black women make up only 6 per cent of the population (ASSA, 2016). It remains unclear whether they will persevere in the field.

The culture and image of a career in science is associated with ‘whiteness’ and masculinity, even though science as a discipline has been traditionally portrayed as being objective and neutral regarding issues of racial, ethnic, cultural and gender differences (Johnson, 2011). It is, therefore, difficult for women in general to enter into and navigate such a career (Schuster & Martiny, 2017), with specific difficulties noted for black women. The challenges facing women in STEM fields include that men are seen as having a greater aptitude for mathematics and an inherent preference to study objects, whereas women are said to have an inherent preference to study people (Richman, van Dellen, & Wood, 2011). Other research suggests that women are socialized and encouraged to pursue more nurturing roles and careers, regardless of their individual capabilities and talents (Wilson, 2003), which is attributed to gender schemas and the accumulation of advantage (Valian, 2007). Men may therefore be socialized to have a natural advantage over women in entering, persisting and succeeding in the natural sciences (Valian, 2007).

Further limitations in the South African context are referred to as ‘black tax’. Naidoo (2008) asserted that the low socio-economic status of black African families as a result of the apartheid legacy has meant that students have to earn an income as soon as they graduate to support their families, more so than their white counterparts. This has meant that black students who wish to advance in professions may need to do so while in full-time employment (Naidoo, 2008) or that they may not have continued with their professional career path. This view is also supported by Sadler and Erasmus (2005) in their work on black professional accounting graduates in South Africa.

Factors Related to Attraction and Retention

Research conducted on the factors related to women choosing to enter and persist in STEM careers suggests that the individual’s attitude towards science from school-going age, aptitude and self-concept play an important role in addition to women’s belief about their academic ability and levels of self-efficacy when choosing a major subject at tertiary level (Kinzie, 2007). Reasons why African American women choose a STEM-related major included high school mathematics and science preparation, the student’s mother’s level of education, expectations of parents regarding children’s completion of a tertiary education, having a parent who works in a STEM field as a role model, and having a positive attitude towards science (Johnson, 2011). The active participation of senior scientists as mentors has been cited as one of the major factors leading to increased entry and participation of women in science (Nolan, 1992) with Jordan (2006) supporting the notion of role models. Added to this, a supportive spouse was cited as a critical factor. However, a lack of black role models in the actuarial profession has meant that black actuarial students do not have mentors to whom they can look for advice, guidance, support and motivation (Naidoo, 2008).

One key internal factor was cited by all participants in Jordan’s (2006) study on study and career choices related to STEM fields: their natural curiosity. Children from privileged backgrounds who had educated and supportive parents were found to be more likely to choose and succeed in a career in mathematics and science (Jordan, 2006). Many black South African students are often from low socio-economic backgrounds with parents that have not had the privilege of higher education (McGhie, 2017). The likelihood of South African black women choosing and persisting in actuarial science is therefore very small.

Research Design

Research Approach

The study used a qualitative approach and was exploratory in nature, in that it addressed a ‘real-life’ phenomenon or occurrence—the factors related to black women entering and persisting in the actuarial profession.

Research Strategy

A multiple case study strategy was employed. Case studies are useful for gaining understanding of or learning about a little-known or poorly understood phenomenon (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Purposive sampling based on race, gender and being a qualified actuary was used to identify African and Indian South African woman actuaries. Five worked for the same insurance company, and one was at a university. Six cases received in-depth exploration and are deemed sufficient due to the low number of black women who are qualified actuaries. The unit of analysis was the six individual cases of the participants.

The first round of data for this study were collected narratives that each participant was asked to compile (Chase, 2005). Narratives are broadly defined as any spoken or written presentation that is meant to tell a story about a particular phase or moment in a participant’s life (Schwandt, 2007). The participants wrote narratives of three stages of their careers: scholar, university student and qualified working actuary and were asked to explain (a) why they chose to study actuarial science; (b) why they persisted with their studies until they qualified; and (c) why they remained in the discipline.

The analysis was conducted per individual case, where after comparisons between the cases were made, based on the themes derived from the individual cases. In analysing the data, coding was used with the aim of grouping and summarizing the data (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). The following process was followed: step 1: line-by-line and event-by-event coding, resulting in key themes; step 2: cross-case theme comparison; step 3: identification of key themes per participant; and step 4: summary of key themes across all cases by event.

Analysis culminated in a table of events and occurrences distilled for each of the stages of scholar, university student and working actuary. The analysis was verified during semi-structured, one-on-one interviews with the participants (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Questions were open-ended, which encouraged the participants to add or clarify relevant information. The two data-collection methods facilitated the process of triangulation to check the integrity of the conclusions and interpretations by examining or interrogating a conclusion from more than one angle, to verify its credibility (Schwandt, 2007).

Findings

The findings are presented according to the three stages of the women’s schooling, studies and career. The common themes across all phases and participants are provided in Table 1.

Based on Table 1, an inference is made regarding which of the themes or factors were internal and which were external. Internal factors relate to the beliefs, desires and drive that a person inherently possesses, and which lead to that person achieving a desired outcome. External factors relate to environmental and social factors that contribute to the achievement of set goals or desired outcomes. The dataset are as follows:

Internal themes: Intrinsic belief and commitment to succeed; Giving back/Desire to make a difference; and

External themes: Top performer; Early exposure to the field; Support (parents, peers, partner); Respected/Prestigious profession; and Limited representation of black women in the profession.

Table 1.

Cross-case Findings from Narratives and Interviews

Phase	Narratives	Interview Recordings
School	§ Top performer § Early exposure to the field § Difficult/Challenging nature of discipline § Prestigious nature of career § High earning potential	§ Top performer § Early exposure § Difficult/Challenging profession § Respected/Prestigious profession § Well-paying profession § Family support § Peer support § Role model
University to qualifying	§ Intrinsic belief and commitment to succeed § Mentor/Role model § Support (family, peers, partner, etc.) § Obligation to corporate sponsor	§ Intrinsic belief and commitment to succeed § Role model § Family support § Peer support § Support from partner § Obligation § Study support/guidance in the work environment § Job security § Limited black female representation in the profession
After qualifying	§ Giving back/Making a difference	§ The desire to make a difference (mentor/teach)

Source: Authors’ own.

The factors presented above have been grouped across all phases (school, university to qualifying and after qualifying), as well as across both the narratives and the interviews.

Discussion

All of the participants noted that, even as children, they believed in their ability to succeed in actuarial studies. External factors and outputs served to fuel this belief, and, even when they faced challenges, propelled them to persevere and, ultimately, be role models for other students. Having noted this, and taking into account the discussions with the participants, a further inference was drawn that, although both internal and external factors are important in contributing towards achieving a desired outcome, internal factors are pivotal. In light of the above, this discussion commences with a detailed look at the theme intrinsic belief and commitment to succeed, otherwise known as self-efficacy, followed by a demonstration of how the external factors link to this internal factor.

The concept of self-efficacy was initially introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, in 1977 (Amatucci & Crawley, 2011) and it is used to describe one’s conviction and belief in one’s ability to perform a particular task (Amatucci & Crawley, 2011). Klassen and Usher (2010) concurred with this view. They asserted that people’s behaviours are shaped by their belief in their abilities. Other factors, such as skills, knowledge and exposure, play a role in one’s success, but the beliefs that people hold about their levels of capabilities are instrumental in making the difference between success and failure (Klassen & Usher, 2010).

Sources of Information That Influence Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is created and subsequently altered based on people’s interpretations of relevant information from four primary sources (Charleston & Leon, 2016), namely, performance accomplishments or mastery experiences; vicarious experiences; verbal or social persuasion (encouragement from others); and emotional arousal or physiological reaction.

The aforementioned will be discussed individually, to highlight external factors and their link to the internal factors identified from the data.

Performance Accomplishments or Mastery Experience

Mastery experience is a past experience of success and failure over time and the learning and beliefs that developed through this process (Bandura, 1997). Success or failure at a task plays a key role in shaping one’s self-efficacy. Where success comes easy, an individual may not be able to adequately deal with failure, and may thus be easily discouraged. Yet, facing a few failures may build the resilience needed to succeed going forward (Bandura, 1997). The experience of success can influence one’s self-efficacy, which demonstrates that the external factor—successful performance—influences the internal factor—self-efficacy. This is supported by the following statements from the participants.

12. ‘I was good at all the subjects, actually.’

14. ‘I used to do well in all my subjects and I just loved numbers … You know, just as a child, and being a girl and stuff, you don’t really see yourself going down that path.’

It is worth noting that academic performance is an output or an outcome resulting from certain inputs (support, exposure, belief in one’s ability to succeed, to name a few). However, one can argue that academic performance plays a reinforcement role, as an outcome and as an influencing factor, because the more one succeeds, the more one is motivated to stay the course, as is demonstrated by the statements above. Researchers studying self-efficacy have argued that it is domain-specific (Amatucci & Crawley, 2011). This means that an individual may be highly self-efficacious in certain areas and less in others. Gaylon, Blondin, Yaw, Nalls and Williams (2011) conducted research on academic self-efficacy and found that self-efficacy beliefs are organized hierarchically, such that students will develop self-efficacy regarding a particular area of a subject, and then the next, and then the entire subject, and, ultimately, broaden their self-efficacy to other subjects, thus becoming all-round top performers. There is evidence to support this theory in the present study; all the women interviewed were all-round top performers during their school-going years. Bolat and Odaci (2016) concurred with this view in their research on final-year students and their career decisions. However, research confirmed that students with a stronger sense of self-efficacy regarding mathematics were more likely to choose mathematics and science as subjects and perform well in these than students with a low sense of self-efficacy regarding these subjects (Charleston & Leon, 2016). Work conducted in stereotype threat on African American students found that these students reported higher levels of self-efficacy than their white counterparts, which could be attributed to the difficulties they faced as a minority ethnic group (Schweinle & Mims, 2009).

Vicarious Experience

Vicarious experience refers to learning that takes place through the observation of others who have mastered the task (Flowers & Banda, 2016), otherwise known as role models. This means that the variety of role models and the perceived authority and success of those models have a significant influence, especially as it relates to how the observer relates to his or her role in relation to the observed or role model (Charleston & Leon, 2016). Vicarious experience also relates to early exposure that may contribute to learning and experience, which fuels interest, which may encourage active participation and, ultimately, success.

Research conducted in STEM disciplines emphasizes the importance of female role models in STEM fields for black women, with reference to entry and persistence in these fields. The presence of female role models has been linked to increasing positive attitudes towards STEM careers in girls (Wang & Degol, 2016). The exposure of female students to female maths and science professionals over extended periods as mentors, role models or even teachers contributes to positive attitudes towards STEM careers (Tyler-Wood, Ellison, Lim, & Periathiruvadi, 2011). In addition to this, research has found that black female students who have a mentor or role model of the same race and sex are more empowered and have an enabling environment that provides coping mechanisms against racism and sexism (Gasman & Perna, 2011). In an outreach programme created to attract school-going girls to the engineering discipline, it was found that the success of the programme was partly due to the girls having been introduced to practising women engineers (Wallace & Sheldon, 2014). Similar sentiments were expressed by some of the participants in the present study, as expressed below:

24. ‘My sister is a doctor. She went to a black primary school in Limpopo [a rural area] …’

85. ‘… and become a doctor, and she is a constant source of inspiration, because she is always pushing boundaries and innovating … or doing things that you do not think that black women can do …’

The presence of a female role model in actuarial science or another STEM profession provided encouragement and contributed to the participants’ self-efficacy, which not only served to attract these women to the field but also aided their persistence to succeed. The under-representation of black female role models in STEM fields also bolstered the self-efficacy of the students, and encouraged them to enter this discipline. A study conducted on Millennials at historically black colleges and universities in the USA revealed that black female students recognized early on that the STEM fields were male-dominated, and drew strength and encouragement from this fact (Lewis et al., 2011). They were proud to be of the few women who defied the odds and succeeded, regardless of the challenges they faced (Lewis et al., 2011). A study by Charleston and Leon (2016) revealed that students mentioned that the under-representation of black woman professors in STEM fields fuelled their commitment and desire to enter and persist in these fields, so that they could be role models to those coming after them. This is consistent with statements made by some of the participants:

129. ‘But I’m proud of the fact that I am an actuary and that, if I can go, as you said, you know, usually, if I go into a meeting, it’s mostly white males, and I can sit there and I can be like, “I’m not here because just because of employment equity [affirmative action]. I’m here because I have the same qualifications as these guys.”’

Although the under-representation of black women in STEM disciplines is a negative phenomenon (Pietri, Johnson, & Ozgumus, 2018), in this instance it was perceived as a positive influencer serving to encourage young women to pursue actuarial science, strengthening their resolve and self-efficacy to succeed. This view is consistent with the internal factor labelled Giving back/Making a difference. Participants in the present study attributed their determination to succeed and persist in the field to the fact that they also wanted to be able to give back to those coming after them by being mentors, teachers and role models. They mentioned their desire to demonstrate to younger black women that they, too, can be successful and to motivate them to enter and persist in actuarial science.

44. ‘A lot of things that, I suppose, built self-confidence and also always keenly put this thing in my mind that I can see that God has given me so many talents, so I have a big responsibility to give back and to make sure that, at the end of my life, I am not sitting on my talents …’

The study by Charleston and Leon (2016) on black female participants in the field of information technology found that they entered the field because there were so few black women in this field, and they persisted so that they could be role models to others. It is therefore clear that the desire to give back, fuelled by the external factor of the shortage of role models, plays a critical role in the attraction and retention of women in STEM fields, specifically in actuarial science. The participants stated that they looked up to their mothers.

66. ‘I think, you know, my mom’s been quite a big influence in terms of my journey and that kind of thing, and the type of person I am, because she’s actually quite a determined woman.’

The view of parents/family members as role models presents an interesting angle to the sphere of role models for black women in STEM fields. The literature clearly states that role models for women in these fields comprise woman scientists, mathematicians and engineers, but is silent about mothers and other family members outside of STEM disciplines. An introduction of STEM-related careers to the youth, especially women, providing a clear understanding of the various choices in degrees and fields of study and the requirements, could assist in fostering a better understanding of the nature of these disciplines (Wang & Degol, 2016). Exposing young girls to mathematics and science should be encouraged, as it sparks an interest, which, if nurtured correctly, could contribute to their self-efficacy in studying this field (Sharma, 1987). The participants in the present study attributed part of their interest in actuarial science to their early exposure to mathematics and actuarial science through involvement in junior mathematics and science-related competitions, as well as engaging with actuaries and professionals in STEM fields, who shared information about the discipline.

2. ‘So, I think I mentioned this in my narrative about when I first found out about actuarial science was when I was in Grade Seven, so I was around eleven.’

The literature suggests that early exposure of young women to STEM-related careers not only serves to dispel stereotypical myths about mathematics and science but can also assist in providing information regarding the plethora of career options available and the financial stability and prestige that these careers offer (Tyler-Wood et al., 2011). This resonates with Theme: Respected/Prestigious profession with the sub-themes High earning potential, Job security and Difficult/Challenging profession. The participants’ emphasis on the high earning potential and prestige of the profession can be observed in the following narrative:

132. ‘It feels a lot safer than having a CFA [Chartered Financial Analyst] or a CA [Chartered Accountant] or that kind of job or that sort of qualification, because, I think, particularly in the insurance community and in the actuarial community, it’s very much respected.’

Social or Verbal Persuasion

Social or verbal persuasion, also known as encouragement from others, is an additional means of enhancing and strengthening self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). This refers to any form of encouragement and constructive feedback from significant others and influential people, such as parents, family, friends, peers and role models (Flowers & Banda, 2016). This school of thought is cognisant of the important role that socio-economic factors play in shaping the beliefs and outlook of parents, but where these are controlled for, parents who have high levels of self-efficacy themselves can shape this in their children, regardless of the circumstances they themselves faced as children or continue to face as adults (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Carprara, & Pastorelli, 2001). Longitudinal research revealed that mothers’ beliefs about their children’s capabilities influenced and showed a direct link to the children’s own level of self-efficacy, irrespective of the children’s academic performance (Leaper, Farkas, & Brown, 2012).

Following is a statement linking individual self-efficacy to the support of family and parents:

80. ‘But my entire life, … it’s been my mum encouraging me, and, also, … when I’ve been doing these sort of Maths Olympiads and this kind of travelling overseas and stuff, she’s supported me a hundred per cent.’

Physiological Reaction or Emotional Arousal

This refers to an individual’s interpretation of physiological and emotional states in stressful or taxing situations—higher emotional or psychological stress levels are associated with lower levels of self-efficacy, and vice versa (Bandura, 1997). Due to stereotyping, black women are uncomfortable and may feel inadequate with regard to STEM fields. However, some people thrive on situations that cause anxiety and worry in others. This inference is made on the basis of what the participants in the present study had to say about two of the external factors that motivated them: the difficult and challenging nature of the actuarial profession and the obligation they felt towards their sponsors. The participants mentioned that one of the reasons their interest in actuarial science was piqued was because they had been told that it was difficult and challenging, and that the success rate was low.

35. ‘I think it’s just my personality that I enjoy challenges … I mean, it’s what I’m experiencing at work right now and what my managers were telling me as well, … as soon as something intrigues me and stuff, I’m a hundred per cent committed, and I’m, you know, willing to drive and finish it off.’

Recommendations

The participants noted that their early exposure to actuarial science had informed their decision to enter the field. With an emphasis on the importance of hard work, effort and self-belief (Wang & Degol, 2016) and sharing information with parents and guardians on their role in supporting and nurturing self-efficacy, interest in actuarial science can be enhanced.

The findings of the research hold important implications for the attraction and retention of black women into actuarial careers. First, employers should recognize that women do not necessarily become interested in mathematics as a natural occurrence in their lives. Instead, actuarial science can be highlighted as a potential career with good employment prospects for parents of young children. Through the encouragement of parents, young girls may take an interest in the field. Employers who wish to increase the participation of black women in actuarial science should therefore invest in brand and career communication to parents of girls. Furthermore, competitions and maths resources could be sponsored by these employers. This serves to strengthen the potential pipeline of black women actuaries for future employment. Emphasis should be placed on encouraging black girls to not only engage with mathematics but also to follow role models and to compete to become one of the best in a school or district. These measures should aid in building black girls’ levels of self-efficacy, which will ultimately lead to an increase in women’s participation in actuarial science. In addition, Chaudhary, Rangnekar and Barua (2014) state that employee workplace performance is linked to self-efficacy.

The need for women to mentor and to make a difference to the lives of other black women and the fact that black women know that they are part of a minority and therefore relatively unique in their career, should be harnessed by employers that are serious about increasing the number of black women actuaries. Qualified woman actuaries should also make an effort to contribute to early intervention programmes and provide mentorship to aspiring actuaries. Corporates, universities and the actuarial society could make a contribution in this regard by ensuring that they dedicate resources to establishing structured mentorship programmes that provide students with support from role models and mentors. Arifeen (2010) found that women did not regard mentoring as significant in organizations where gender bias was low. The potential for gender bias may be high in a male-dominant environment such as actuarial science.

This study highlights the important role that mothers play in instilling self-efficacy in black women. Attaining the career aspirations that mothers have for their daughters is a big driver of competitive excellence for black actuaries in addition to fulfilling economic support expectations of their families and remaining employed as an actuary. Being an outsider in mathematics by virtue of being black can be utilized to work in favour of young girls. Girls and women can be energized by the challenge of overturning commonly held notions of what it takes to be an actuary.

Conclusion

When considering an increase in employment for minorities in STEM, employers should recognize that their efforts and interventions should start long before black girls enter university. They should focus corporate and career branding efforts on parents and continue with support throughout schooling, university and early career phases for black girls. With regard to self-efficacy, the power of the encouraging words, a vote of confidence, can change the course of a girl’s life forever. Actuaries are not born, they are indeed made.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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