Developing Entrepreneurial Intensity among Women Entrepreneurs of Jammu & Kashmir: Model Building through Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Abstract

In developing nations like India, entrepreneurship can be a solution of many economy-related problems; to achieve this, high level of entrepreneurial intensity (EI) is to be ensured. EI measures the focus and commitment of an entrepreneur towards his/her venture. It can influence performance of firms, provide sustainable advantage to individuals, societies etc.

The state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) is facing issues like low GDP and high unemployment. High level of EI, especially among women, can provide solution to many of its problems. So, the present endeavour assesses the level of intensity among the women entrepreneurs and then suggests some measures to enhance the same. The results of the study show that innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy, which are taken as the basic postulates of EI in study, show significant loading. Although women entrepreneurs tend to show pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness strongly, it is innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy are not good fit. This study proposes a model for training for the women entrepreneurs to improve their level of EI to accelerate the growth of entrepreneurship in the state. This will in turn enhance the overall economic growth of the state.

Keywords

Entrepreneurial Intensity Women Entrepreneurs Jammu and Kashmir Training Model

Introduction

Entrepreneurs are seen as catalysts that have the capability to change the scenario of the business world. They have the ability to see opportunity where others can just see chaos and confusion. Not only can organizational wealth be enhanced by it (Ireland, Kuratko & Covin, 2009), but also world economies are revitalized due to it (Naude, 2010). Traditionally in India entrepreneurship was linked to the culture and customs, which made it grow along the societal lines only. But now success of any entrepreneur is largely dependent on his/her vision, innovativeness, risk-taking ability, etc., and needs not to be linked to the country culture, traditions etc., (Rizvi & Gupta, 2009). Researchers, such as Shaver and Scott (1991), Low and MacMillan (1988), Brockhaus (1982), Casson (1982) etc., have explained certain characteristics which differentiate entrepreneurs from the commoners, including ambition, need for achievement, risk-taking and locus of control. Entrepreneurs have something in them which differentiates them from the rest. This something is an inner drive to do and be different. Most commonly this inner drive is explained as an entrepreneurial intensity (EI) (Gadenne, 1998; Ireland, Kuratko & Morris, 2006; Liao, Murphy & Welsch, 2005; Morris & Sexton, 1996; Morris, Lewis & Sexton, 1994).

EI measures the level of focus and commitment of an entrepreneur towards his/her venture. Focus refers to the extent to which other pursuits can be given up for a particular venture, while commitment means the time and resources spent on the creation, growth and development of the venture. High EI ensures that highest efforts and value are put on the venture by the entrepreneur rather than the other personal and professional commitments. Several models of EI have been proposed by researchers. Some say that it significantly impacts the venture performance (Herron & Robinson, 1993), some establish that it creates sustainable advantage for the individuals, organizations and the societies (Morris, 1998), while others believe that it helps in formulating high growth strategies for the businesses (Gundry & Welsch, 2001).

India has witnessed entrepreneurship as a phenomenon mostly dominated by men, but the present socio-cultural environment offers equal opportunities to women for joining the hands of entrepreneurship (Shah & Saurabh, 2015). Shah (2012) believes that for economic growth in India, more women entrepreneurs should be generated as they can return 90 per cent of every unit of investment made on them (VanderBrug, 2013). In middle and lower classes as well as rural areas in India, women entrepreneurs find it extremely difficult to meet their familial and entrepreneurial demands simultaneously (Mathew & Panchanatham, 2009). As per Nelasco (2008), women in India have high leadership potential but it is significantly lowered by their socio-economic and political restrictions. In such a scenario, emerging as successful entrepreneurs will require them to be extra-ordinarily motivated and have high EI which will differentiate them from the rest.

The state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) in India belongs to the northern part and is different in terms of its demographic profile, societal norms, culture, trading, etc. (Biswal & Sangma, 2014). Parihar et al. (2013) conducted a study in the state of J&K which reveals that women entrepreneurs have low entrepreneurial competencies/intensity and face numerous problems (Dar & Ahmad, 2013; Dar & Mir, 2013; Mir, 2012; Sharma, 2013). It is known from the annual report of Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, that the annual GDP of the state of J&K in year 2014–2015 was INR 879,210 million which is one of the lowest in India. Its unemployment rate as per 4th annual employment–unemployment survey report by Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India, in 2013–2014 was 4.9 per cent which is one of the highest in the country.

Combining these two aspects and the fact that entrepreneurship can be a great source of increasing GDP and reducing unemployment (Naude, 2010b), this study proposes to enhance core entrepreneurial competencies among women entrepreneurs of the state by empirically investigating which entrepreneurial traits. A training model can be provided for the same which will eventually enhance the level of women entrepreneurship in the state and it will have a direct influence on the overall GDP and employment status of the state.

Literature Review

Researchers, such as Birley and Westhead (1994), Cooper and Dunkelberg (1981), Dubini and Aldrich (1991), Mcgrath, Scheinberg and MacMillan (1992), Shane, Kolvereid and Westhead (1991) etc., have tried to identify the reasons why entrepreneurs start their ventures. Talking about women entrepreneurs who manage both family and work, they often opt for entrepreneurship to provide more flexibility and life balance to fulfil their roles both as a home maker as well as the employer (Buttner & Moore, 1997). Many researches have been done in the field of EI suggesting how it influences the overall venture performance, how it provides sustainable advantage to the individuals, organizations and the societies, etc. Some even suggest that it helps entrepreneurs to formulate high growth-oriented strategies for their ventures.

Brief literature review on EI and women entrepreneurship in J&K is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Review of Literature

Title of the Study	Name of Author(s)	Year, Region	Major Findings
Literature on Entrepreneurial Intensity
The influence of entrepreneurial intensity and capabilities on internationalization and firm performance.	Urban & Sefalafala	2015, South Africa	The results reveal that entrepreneurial intensity and capabilities are positively related with the performance of the firms.
The impact of cultural openness, religion and nationalism on entrepreneurial intensity: six prototypical cases of Turkish family firms.	Sabah, Carsrud & Kocak	2014, Turkey	Results show that Islam is conducive to entrepreneurial intensity within Turkish context. Nationalistic firms show lower frequency and degree of entrepreneurial intensity.
Entrepreneurial attitude of the youngest members of family businesses: A theoretical approach.	Moreno & Ussman	2013, Spain	Both positive as well as negative relationships were found between entrepreneurial intention of the younger members of family businesses and entrepreneurial orientation of these family businesses. So a mixed response was obtained.
Proactive personality and entrepreneurial intent: Is entrepreneurial self-efficacy a mediator or moderator?	Prabhu, Mcguire, Drost & Kwong	2012, USA, China, Finland, Russia	The authors found that Proactive Personality (PP) has a robust relationship with the three different manifestations of EI—general, high growth and lifestyle. Furthermore, Entrepreneurial Self Efficacy (ESE) not only mediated the relationship between PP and all the three forms of EI but also moderated the relationship between PP and high growth EI as well as PP and lifestyle EI.
Beyond social capital: The role of perceived legitimacy and entrepreneurial intensity in achieving funding success and superior venture performance in women-led Russian SMEs.	Lakovleva & Kickul	2011, Russia	The study proposes that entrepreneurs’ intensity towards the business is associated with their perception of financial competence and firm performance.
Entrepreneurial intention: The role of gender.	Garcia & Moreno	2010, Spain	The results propose that both men and women with a firm entrepreneurial intention perceive successful entrepreneurs to have feminine attributes.
Which factors affect entrepreneurial intention of university students?	Turker & Selcuk	2009, Turkey	The results of the survey showed that educational and structural support factors affect the entrepreneurial intention of students.
Factors influencing entrepreneurial intensity in communities.	Heibrunn	2008, Israel	The results reveal that organizational age and size do have an impact on the level of entrepreneurial intensity
Entrepreneurial intensity: A study of established companies in South Africa	Scheepers, Hough & Bloom	2007, South Africa	The results reveal that ICT companies have higher levels of entrepreneurial intensity than those listed on Johannesburg Stock Exchange.
Developing and validating a construct of entrepreneurial intensity	Liao, Murphy & welsch	2005, USA	Entrepreneurial intensity is an important factor in differentiating nascent entrepreneurs. Used risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness, autonomy, innovativeness and pro-activeness for assessing entrepreneurial intensity.
The ambitious entrepreneur: High growth strategies of women-owned enterprises.	Gundry & Welsch	USA, 2001	High growth-oriented women entrepreneurs have a much greater focus on new technologies and expansion of market which allows them to exhibit higher levels of entrepreneurial intensity.
Literature on Women Entrepreneurship in Jammu and Kashmir
Prospects of women entrepreneurship: A study of the women entrepreneurs of Kashmir valley.	Shah & Mustafa	2014, Jammu & Kashmir	Study reveals the inner drive of women, financial support, familial support, etc., to be among the numerous factors for motivating women to take up entrepreneurship.
Prospects and challenges of women entrepreneurship: A study of the women entrepreneurs of Jammu and Kashmir	Mustafa	2013, Jammu & Kashmir	Support from government in the form of subsidies, incentives etc., tend to significantly motivate women entrepreneurs in the state.
Modern challenges to women entrepreneurship development: A study of district Rajouri in Jammu and Kashmir state	Mir	2012, Jammu & Kashmir	This study identifies blockades in the way of women entrepreneurship in the state including: lack of support from the society in general and family in particular, mobility problems, lack of financial resources, low credibility in the eyes of financial institutions, less awareness etc.
Factors affecting orientation and satisfaction of women entrepreneurs in rural India.	Jyoti, Sharma and Kumari	2011, Jammu & Kashmir	Support from the family and earnings from the venture are seen to significantly satisfy the women entrepreneur. Self-confidence, financial interdependence and determination decide the orientation of the entrepreneur towards the success of their venture as per this study.
Diversification in rural livelihood strategies: macro-level evidence from Jammu and Kashmir	Sharma	2010, Jammu & Kashmir	Agriculture is a sector where rural women entrepreneurs can venture into and create livelihood opportunities for themselves and others as per this study.
Impact of motivational factors and role stress on women entrepreneurs in Jammu.	Parihar, Singh, Sharma and Singh	2008, Jammu & Kashmir	Their study revealed the boredom from being a typical house wife, liking to do some different job, overcome financial problems, carry on with the family business etc., to be the motivating factors for women to be the entrepreneurs.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Review of literature revealed different dimensions of EI. Most important of them which have been used by present study include the following: innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy. This is supported by researchers including: Liao, Murphy and Welsch (2005), Morris (1998), Morris, Lewis and Sexton (1994), Lumpkin and Dess (1996), Kuratko, Hornsby and Goldsby (2007), Morris and Jones (1999), Covin and Slevin (1989), Miles and Arnold (1991) etc.

Research Gap

Most of the researches available on EI are with respect to the developed countries, such as USA, Singapore, Russia, Australia, etc., where the prevailing situations are quite different than those of developing and underdeveloped nations. Studies on this topic are very scarce with respect to Indian women entrepreneurs and very scarce with respect to women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. Also we could not find any study which seeks to address the problems of low GDP and high unemployment by providing training to enhance EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. So a research gap was found after reviewing the relevant literature. This called us to research and reveal how women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K can be given training for increasing their level of EI/competency and also which traits to address first based on their relative importance.

Data and Methodology

Research Objectives

Research objectives are presented as under:

To identify the contribution of various dimensions towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

To explore which dimensions of EI should be enhanced to improve the level of entrepreneurship among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

To develop a comprehensive model showing how training can be used to strategically enhance the various dimensions of EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

Research Hypotheses

With the above objectives in mind, the following hypotheses have been drafted:

H1: Innovativeness significantly contributes towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

H2: Pro-activeness significantly contributes towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

H3: Competitive aggressiveness significantly contributes towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

H4: Risk-taking significantly contributes towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

H5: Autonomy significantly contributes towards EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

Data

The data used in this study have been collected by administering a structured questionnaire among 405 women entrepreneurs belonging to the state of J&K in India. The primary survey was carried out during the time period of November 2015 to March 2016. The entrepreneurs were randomly selected from the list which was provided by Jammu and Kashmir Entrepreneurship Development Institute situated in Srinagar. Respondents were asked questions about their entrepreneurial traits including innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy.

These women entrepreneurs were from different districts of the state, including Srinagar, Jammu, Budgam, Baramulla, Pulwama, Anantnag, Udhampur, Rajouri, Shopian, Kupwara, Ganderbal, Ramban, Bandipora, Kulgam, Samba, Kathua, Doda, Kishtwar, Kargil, Leh, Reasi and Poonch.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Before moving on with the empirical analysis, the instrument used was checked for its reliability and validity using composite reliability, average variance extracted, maximum shared variance and average shared variance. The values are given in Table 2.

Hair et al. (2010) proposed that data are reliable when its composite reliability (CR) is greater than 0.7. For convergent validity, AVE should be greater than 0.5 and for discriminant validity; both MSV and ASV should be less than AVE. Table 2 depicts that our data are fulfilling all these conditions which makes us draw the inference that the data used by us are both reliable and valid enough for further processing.

Table 2.

Reliability and Validity Results

	CR	AVE	MSV	ASV	RT	INN	PA	CA	AUT
RT	0.936	0.787	0.156	0.075	0.887
INN	0.917	0.629	0.100	0.052	0.144	0.793
PA	0.918	0.743	0.632	0.211	0.350	0.280	0.862
CA	0.985	0.957	0.632	0.226	0.395	0.317	0.795	0.978
AUT	0.924	0.753	0.017	0.010	-0.026	0.099	0.105	0.132	0.868

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Notes: CR-Composite Reliability; AVE- Average Variance Extracted; MSV-Maximum Shared Variance; ASV-Average Shared Variance.

Profile of Respondents

A brief overview of the demographic profile of respondents is given in Table 3.

The Table 3 reflects that most of the women entrepreneurs in the current study are falling in the age group of 20–40 which can be considered as a group of young people. Most of them are educated with low-income levels and just a couple of them exporting what they produce. Reason for low-income level is that survey was conducted among small enterprises of the state of J&K.

Table 3.

Demographic Profile of Respondents

	Valid	Frequency	Per cent
Age	Below 20	6	1.5
	20–40	292	72.1
	40–60	107	26.4
	Above 60	0	0.00
Educational Qualification	Secondary/Senior secondary	206	50.9
	Graduate	139	34.3
	Postgraduate and over	48	11.9
	Other	12	3.0
Income	Less than 25,000 INR	157	38.8
	25,000–50,000	134	33.1
	50,000–75,000	91	22.5
	More than 75,000	23	5.7
Exporter	Yes	2	0.5
	No	403	99.5

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory factor analysis is a very important modelling technique which is used to map certain measures onto theoretical constructs. This is depicted by the loadings of the corresponding constructs. Using CFA in the current study will help us to ascertain whether innovativeness, pro-activeness, competitive aggressiveness, risk-taking and autonomy load adequately on entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. For this purpose, Mplus Version 7 was used and developed by Muthen and Muthen (1998).

After performing CFA, we got the factor loadings and model fit indices as depicted in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

Table 4.

Factor Loadings of 22 Items Selected to Represent Entrepreneurial Intensity among Women Entrepreneurs of J&K

Factor (R²)	Items	Factor Loadings:
Factor (R²)	Items	I	II	III	IV	V
Innovativeness (11.2% of variance)-INN	Over the next few years we could change up to 50% of the processes that support our current business model (Inn1)	0.894
	We have already put measurable resources (human and financial) behind our innovation agenda (Inn2)	0.861
	We have a good record of rolling out new products and services in the market (Inn3)	0.399
	Innovation is a core value in this organization (Inn4)	0.45
	Our strategic planning process is oriented towards grabbing the opportunity (Inn5)	0.94
	Our strategic initiatives aim at gaining competitive advantage (Inn6)	0.914
	We strongly emphasize research and development, technological leadership and innovations (Inn7)	0.885
Pro-activeness (70% of variance)-PA	We believe in moving carefully, while ceasing opportunities in the market (PA1)		0.571
	In dealing with competition, we initiate actions which the competitors then respond to (PA2)		0.984
	In dealing with competitors, we prefer to adopt the live and let live strategy (PA3)		0.87
	Our firm is always the one to initiate strategies and bring new products/services in the market than the competitors (PA4)		0.96
Competitive aggressiveness (90.3% of variance)-CA	We are prepared to launch a new product/service even when it is unclear how successful it may be (CA1)			0.978
	We are aggressive and intensely competitive in taking business away from the competitors (CA2)			0.974
	We make every possible attempt to stay ahead of our competitors (CA3)			0.983
Risk-taking(17.2% of variance)-RT	Problem is studied very thoroughly before deploying resources to solve it (RT1)				0.891
	High risk projects are preferred over low risk projects in our firm (RT2)				0.874
	When faced with a decision-making situation under uncertainty, we adopt a wait and see strategy (RT3)				0.833
	It is always good to study the environment properly before taking any decision in the organization (RT4)				0.946
Autonomy (1.8% of variance)-AUT	We support the efforts of individuals/teams that work autonomously (AUT1)					0.919
	Individuals/teams take decisions on their own without consulting superiors (AUT2)					0.755
	Individuals/teams are expected to use out-of-the-box strategies in the pursuit of opportunities (AUT3)					0.857
	In my firm the top management decides which opportunities to pursue (AUT4)					0.929

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Note: All are Significant at p < 0.05.

Table 4 shows that all the variables including innovativeness, pro-activeness, competitive aggressiveness, risk-taking and autonomy load significantly on entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K as values are higher than 0.75 in almost all the cases. Some researchers suggest that even a loading of 0.4 is respectable (Bowen & Guo, 2011), but we are considering them only for the reason that we achieved good model fit. Model fit indices (Table 6) are all in their prescribed ranges and hence supporting the model.

CFI—It should be greater than 0.9 for a model to be acceptable (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).

TLI—Acceptable value for this index is 0.9 (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).

RMSEA—Model is acceptable if value is less than or equal to 0.05 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).

SRMR—Value below 0.80 is a good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

χ²/df(Relative Chi-square)—It should preferably be less than three for a good model fit (Carmnines & Mclver, 1981).

Hence, we have achieved a good model fit with respectable factor loadings, indicating an efficacious CFA. Table 5 depicts how the five constructs including innovativeness, pro-activeness, competitive aggressiveness, risk-taking and autonomy load on entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. Values greater than 0.75 are considered acceptable as per Nunnally (1978). The table reveals that three constructs including innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy have low values suggesting that women entrepreneurs exhibit low innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy while showcasing entrepreneurial intensity. The other two, pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness, are found to be good as their loadings are greater than 0.75. The overall model, with all its loadings, errors and variances, for entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K is given in the Figure 1.

Table 5.

Overall Loadings of Various Dimensions on Entrepreneurial Intensity

S.No.	Dimension	Loading
1.	Innovativeness	0.335
2.	Pro-activeness	0.836
3.	Competitive Aggressiveness	0.95
4.	Risk-taking	0.415
5.	Autonomy	0.134

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Note: Significant at p < 0.01.

Figure 1.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

The model depicts that almost all constructs significantly load on their respective dimensions, that is, innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy, although it is just pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness which load adequately on entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. The model clearly depicts that women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K are highly pro-active and competitively aggressive while lacking on innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy at the same time.

Table 6.

Model Diagnostics

Chi-square (χ²)	445.069
Degree of freedom (df)	204
P-Value	0.0000
Scaling correction factor for MLR	0.7577
CFI (Comparative fit index)	0.946
TLI (Tucker-Lewis index)	0.938
RMSEA (Root mean square error of approximation)	0.05
SRMR (Standard root mean square residual)	0.039

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Note: Significant at p < 0.01.

Results and Discussion

The results of this study revealed that the scale used is both reliable as well as valid. It means that this scale can be used for further research in assessing entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. Hence, this study proposed a scale which can be used for test–retest analysis as was indicated by tests of reliability, validity, factor loadings and model diagnostics (CFA). The results of this study also show that innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy significantly load on entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. All of them show reasonable loadings which makes us to draw such inference. This is in congruence with the findings of Liao, Murphy and Welsch (2005), Morris (1998), Morris, Lewis and Sexton (1994), Lumpkin and Dess (1996), Kuratko, Hornsby and Goldsby (2007) etc. Further analysis of second order CFA revealed that out of the five dimensions used, only two, that is, pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness, are significantly high among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. The rest three, innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy, are low. From this we deduce that women entrepreneurs portray lower intensity on three among five dimensions of entrepreneurial intensity.

This makes us to accept all our hypotheses which suggest that innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy significantly contribute towards entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. Out of these women entrepreneurs exhibit pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness strongly while innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy are found to be weak among them.

This study suggests that by the various governmental initiatives and efforts by NGOs training can be provided to the women entrepreneurs to enhance their creativity/ innovativeness, risk-taking capability and autonomy. With pro-activeness and competitive aggressiveness already being good, overall entrepreneurial intensity will get strong in all its constructs in women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. When entrepreneurial intensity gets high, the overall women entrepreneurship in the state will grow, which will eventually lead to the benefits, such as enhanced GDP in the state, reduced unemployment, infrastructural development/community development, etc. This is depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Conclusion and Implications of the Study

The most important takeaway of this study is that women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K exhibit low entrepreneurial intensity on three constructs (innovativeness, risk-taking and autonomy) out of five (innovativeness, risk-taking, pro-activeness, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy) considered for the study. It makes us to draw the inference that women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K are lacking in terms of being innovative, risk-takers and providing autonomy to people working in their organization.

This study provides a scale which can be used for further research in the field of entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K.

This study also proposes a model which can be used by policymakers to enhance EI among women entrepreneurs of the state of J&K. This will eventually help to enhance overall economic condition of the state.

For future researches, initiatives, such as project Shakti and micro-credit facilities of J&K Grameen bank, can be studied, which can significantly help in enhancing the current status of women entrepreneurship in the state of J&K. They have done well in other states of the country. These can significantly help in the training module, as proposed by the study, by enhancing entrepreneurial intensity among women entrepreneurs of the state.

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