Women: Autonomous Bodies,Are They? Understanding Autonomy and Well-being

Abstract

Autonomy for women and their well-being are significant issues to understand because the development of society depends heavily on women’s participation. Autonomy for women is conceptualized as one of the essential components of well-being. The research aimed to explore the meaning of autonomy for women, the changes in their lives through autonomy, and its impact on their well-being. Thirty-eight married women (18 working women and 20 non-working women), whose ages ranged from 28 to 40 years, were selected through purposive sampling. Participants were selected from Allahabad City and belonged to middle-class socio-economic status. Thematic analysis was done to analyze the data. The dialogue between the researcher and the respondents evolved around the themes that emerged from the data extraction. Three main themes, namely the sense of autonomy, the changes in the lives of women through autonomy, and psychological well-being, developed from examining the meaning of autonomy, its impact, and its consequences. A sense of autonomy was found to be understood by women as a sense of liberty and uninterrupted personal and professional life. Changes in life through autonomy were found to include inner satisfaction or gratification and self-identity. At the same time, psychosocial well-being was found to include self-efficacy, self-concept or self-esteem, and social well-being. The themes and subthemes were further discussed in the article.

Keywords

Sense of autonomy gender equality well-being women

Introduction

“Autonomy indicates the ability-technical, social, and psychological-to obtain information and to use it as the basis for making decisions about one’s private concerns and those of one’s intimates.”

Dyson and Moore (1983:45)

India is a patriarchal society bound by unending traditions of docile and inferior roles of women. In Indian society, women often grow up learning to serve and obey men. In most cases, a man (such as her father, brother, and husband after marriage) must decide about her education, occupation, marriage, and even the number of children to be born. As per a report from the Indian Census, India’s gender ratio was 108 men to 100 women in 2020. Despite their dominance in population, men govern women when it comes to decision-making. Considering the unfair demeanor of males toward females, stress should be laid on greater autonomy and better social status for Indian women.

Women’s human rights include the rights without discrimination to equality, dignity, and autonomy, among others. The right of a woman or girl to make autonomous decisions is at the core of her fundamental right to equality. The UN Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women and girls has expressed concern about severe challenges to the universality of women’s rights in the global community. These challenges stem from economic crises, austerity measures, as well as, cultural and religious conservatism.

In India, women socially have long been treated as second-class citizens. The country’s record on gender equality is dismal. According to the annual Gender Gap report by the World Economic Forum, 2023, India ranked 127th out of 146 countries on gender parity. Although the achievement of gender equality, empowerment and autonomy has enormous socio-economic ramifications, the gap remains deeply entrenched in every society.

NFHS-5 provides data for 2019–2021 and looks at the position of women on six key indicators, out of which one is participation in household decisions which may be considered an important element of autonomy. Though it was found that nearly 88.7% of currently married Indian women tend to participate in the key household decisions about healthcare for themselves, make major household purchases and make visits to family or relatives, observation around oneself does not fully validate this. Besides, other autonomy indicators remain largely absent, like pursuing education, career, and deciding upon the number of children.

Autonomy and Women

Autonomy is “self-governing,” which incorporates taking decisions or initiatives for their sense of volition or doing something (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although there is no universally accepted definition of a woman’s autonomy in the literature, it generally refers to her ability to make and execute independent decisions on personal issues that affect her life and family. According to Dyson and Moore (1983), autonomy refers to the technical, social, and psychological ability to receive and use information in decision-making processes related to the personal issues of individuals and loved ones. Some studies express it in terms of the ability to manipulate an individual’s personal environment through control over resources and information to make decisions about personal matters and close family members. A person can be autonomous if their decisions, actions, or life, in general, can be explained as a genuine appearance of who this person (basically) is, how this person makes decisions, and where the decisions are essential.

Since the concept of autonomy is multidimensional, its elements vary in different cultures. In South Asia, a woman’s participation in family decision-making, control over her financial resources and jobs, and mobility are considered indicators of autonomy. Women’s employment has contributed to women’s autonomy, decision-making, mobility and independence. In some studies, women’s autonomy is considered a single trait; in others, autonomy has been extended to include the ability to work in the social sphere and structures outside the home (Jejeebhoy, 1995, 1996). Concepts of women’s status and autonomy are multidimensional (Jejeebhoy, 1995, 1996; Mahadevan et al., 1989; Mason, 1984). In Jejeebhoy’s autonomy approach, the significant autonomy dimensions are emotional, economic, decision-making, information, and physical. However, other researchers categorize it into three dimensions: financial control, choices, and freedom of movement.

Nevertheless, Obermeyer (1992) argued that socio-politics govern autonomy and gender equality. There are various indicators of women’s autonomy in different settings, such as mobility, participation in household decision-making, education and economic resource control in five Asian countries: India, Pakistan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand (Jejibhoy, 1996; Sathar et al., 2001).

Chakrabarti (2019) identified that the level of hierarchy within families and the role that women—married or not—play in these hierarchies significantly impact patterns of women’s autonomy. Apart from family structure, education also seems to be strongly correlated to autonomy for women. Education leads to greater autonomy, giving women more opportunities to postpone marriage, use contraceptives, and control their fertility. Research shows that gender equality can contribute to women’s independence and promote contraceptive use because women are more involved in decision-making (Hakim et al., 2003). Most relevant demographic literature examining the relationship between gender inequality and contraception use has focused on women’s “autonomy” (Cleland et al., 1996; Furuta & Salway, 2006).

Autonomy also often has a bearing on health outcomes for women. For instance, Dasgupta et al. (2021) found that Indian women with greater autonomy, as measured by their educational and employment status, had better mental health outcomes and lower stress levels. Studies have also indicated a positive relationship between women’s decision-making autonomy, increased dietary diversity, better child and maternal health outcomes, and improved food security. Sinha et al. (2021) found that women with greater autonomy, as measured by their decision-making power regarding their reproductive health, had better reproductive health outcomes and greater access to reproductive health services. Likewise, Siddhanta et al. (2022) established that women with greater autonomy, as measured by their decision-making power regarding their maternal health, had better maternal health outcomes and greater access to maternal health services in India. Another study by Saha et al. (2021) explored that women with greater autonomy, as measured by their educational and employment status, were less likely to experience intimate partner violence in India.

Autonomy for Women and Their Well-being

The “autonomy” in women’s lives brings happiness and satisfaction, further enhancing their well-being (Ghuman, 2003; Jejeebhoy & Sathar, 2001). Well-being is a crucial component of women’s overall health and development. It can be defined as “a state of happiness and contentment, with low levels of distress, overall good physical and mental health and outlook, or good quality of life” (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2023). The ability to make independent decisions about one’s life and control over one’s body and resources is essential for achieving a high level of well-being. Sibeko et al. (2020) examined the relationship between autonomy and well-being among women in South Africa. The study found that women who had greater autonomy, as measured by their level of education, employment status, and decision-making power in the household, reported higher levels of well-being. Larson et al. (2020) explored those women in the United States with greater autonomy, as measured by their income, education, and control over their finances, who reported higher levels of well-being and greater life satisfaction.

Mason (1984) defined women’s autonomy as their ability to influence what happens to them, even though men and other women may disagree with their decisions (Safilios-Rothschild, 1982). All people, including women, have the right to happiness and to lead fulfilling lives. In a culture where men are predominant, women have a lower likelihood of achieving or experiencing domestic autonomy and power.

As we know, freedom gives a person an opportunity for self-growth, a sense of agency, more resilience, high self-esteem, and mature thinking. In addition, a high sense of agency and autonomy improves well-being through good mental and physical health and removes gender inequalities (Sen, 1999). Positive agency (i.e., having the ability to do something) and negative agency (i.e., having the inability to do something), passive agency (i.e., having a limited choice) and active agency are predictors of well-being (Kabeer, 2005).

Theoretical Perspectives

Modern psychologists share the Aristotelian understanding of autonomy, which is based on “self-regulation” and is defined as “a sense of initiative and ownership in one’s actions” by Ryan and Deci (2006). Experiences of being externally controlled, whether through rewards or punishments, support it. Based on self-regulatory processes involved in initiating, managing, and assessing one’s decisions and behaviors, they also promote a proactive and reflective view of autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Ryff (2018, 2019) put forth a theoretical model of psychological well-being and included six dimensions of positive functioning: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, life purpose, positive interactions with others, and self-acceptance. A thorough theoretical foundation for analyzing young people’s positive performance is provided by Ryff’s six-factor psychological well-being model (Sulimani-Aidan, 2016).

According to Deci and Ryan (1985), self-determination is an autonomy-based approach that embodies people’s individual preferences. Competence, which is concerned with achieving a desired result, is one of these demands (Deci & Ryan, 2004). Autonomy, which emphasizes a person’s choices, is the second requirement (Deci & Ryan, 2004). The last requirement is relatedness, which emphasizes reliance on others and respect for one another (Deci & Ryan, 2004). Athanasios (2007) claims that different motivational kinds have varying levels of self-determination, putting people’s various activities along a self-determination continuum. There is a continuum between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation regarding SDT; those who lean more toward intrinsic motivation have greater autonomy, whereas those who lean more toward extrinsic motivation are motivated by rewards (Lauderdale et al., 2015).

Major objectives of the study-

To explore the meaning of autonomy among women.

To find out whether changes take place in the sense of autonomy in the life of women.

To understand the psychosocial well-being of women in relation to autonomy.

Methodology

The researcher attempted a qualitative approach to understand women’s autonomy and tap the information regarding the changes in women’s lives through autonomy, usually understood by the word “freedom.” Researcher learns about what it is like to be another person through qualitative research, which helps them comprehend the world from the perspective of others. It emphasizes the “why” instead of the “what” of social phenomena. It depends on the first-hand accounts of people as individuals in charge of generating meaning in their daily lives (https://libguides.uta.edu/quantitative_and_qualitative_research).

Participants

Purposive and snowball sampling methods were opted to select the participants. The researchers reached the participants through their own social networks and locality. Thirty-eight married women (18 teachers and 20 homemakers) participated in this study. Their age ranged from 28 to 35 years. Participants were selected from Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, belonged to middle-class socio-economic status and lived in urban areas.

Material

Participants’ perspectives toward autonomy were tapped through a semi-structured interview schedule. It consisted of four broad questions, apart from demographic details: (a) what do you mean by autonomy? (Probing); (b) what is the importance of autonomy in women’s lives? (Probing); (c) what are the changes occurring in women’s lives through getting autonomy? (Probing); and (d) how does autonomy shape the well-being of women? (Probing). The participants asked all these questions in different ways to make them understandable.

Procedure

Participants were chosen at random and contacted. After completing the consent form by each participant, they were all interviewed. The researcher assured the participants that their identities would not be revealed and their answers would be kept confidential and used for research purposes only. Data collection was completed through conversations and recorded using a tape recorder.

Analysis and Results

The researcher transcribed the conversation between the researcher and the participant in detail. For analyzing the data, a thematic analysis was done. Braun and Clark (2006) have suggested six steps to follow in doing what is detailed below (Table 1): (a) Familiarizing the data; (b) Generating initial codes; (c) Searching for themes; (d) Reviewing themes; (e) Defining and naming themes; and (f) Producing the report.

First, we deliberated to explore a sense of autonomy, its importance, and its outcomes from the perspective of women.

Table 1.

Analyzing the Transcribed Data at the Initial Phase, Including Generating Initial Codes, Searching for Themes, Reviewing Themes (Subthemes), and Defining and Naming Themes.

Generating Initial Codes	Searching for Themes	Reviewing Themes (Subthemes)	Defining and Naming Themes
Sense of freedom to do something	Desire to be a free bird to fly in the sky without restrictions	Sense of liberty	Sense of autonomy
Freedom from the burden of life and family responsibilities
Freedom from the sense of duty and nurturing others
Seclusion and discretion in daily life
Living without making adjustments and compromises at every step	Existence without constraints
Discretion in daily life
Free from the interference of others in decision-making at home and office	Freedom from disruption to personal and professional life	Uninterrupted personal and professional life
Freedom to act according to one’s own terms and conditions in personal and professional life
Accepting challenges and solving problems (developing creativity and problem-solving competencies)
Happiness	Absolute inner contentment	Inner satisfaction/Gratification	Changes in life through autonomy
Wish fulfillment
Complete inner contentment or satisfaction
Enjoyment
Peace
Maintaining self-identity	Developing self-identity	Self-identity
Achievement	Perception of recognition of oneself/perception of recognition by others
Recognition and respect
Sense of responsibility and pride
Learning self-management in a social environment	Augmenting one’s efficacy	Self-efficacy	Psychosocial well-being
Self-growth/opportunity for development
Increased awareness and social involvement	Augmenting one’s sense of self and self-worth	Self-concept/ self-esteem
Learning self-reliance
To improve oneself in order to have a happier existence
Increased contact	Improved social relationships	Social well-being
Better communication skills
Improved relationships
An active role and position in society

The themes that emerged from data extraction resulted from dialogue between researchers and respondents. Three primary themes emerged while exploring the meaning of autonomy, its impact, and its outcome, that is, sense of autonomy, changes in life through autonomy, and psychological well-being.

Figure 1.

The Analytical Framework of Women’s Autonomy.

Theme 1: Sense of Autonomy for Women

Women play multiple significant roles in the family as well as in society. Results reveal that a sense of autonomy incorporates self-improvement, unconventionality in family and society, and exercising discretion. For instance, the participant’s response to the questions about self-improvement and autonomy is as follows: “Freedom means to give importance to oneself, to give importance to one’s desires, and to make oneself such that no one can stop one from doing any work.” This brief statement describes self-improvement, self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-confidence. The ability to think, feel, and make decisions in one’s life is called “autonomy.” A sense of autonomy is the capacity to learn about and decide on one’s issues. Through autonomy, access to financial resources, other types of wealth, and social resources, including status, expertise, and authority within the family and community, is more manageable in every sphere of life.

Sub-theme 1: A Sense of Liberty

Another statement by the participant (a homemaker, 33-year-old) suggested the independence of family society and said, “I think autonomy is where you have to adjust in life and where you can make your own decisions and live your life on your terms.” Here, this homemaker elaborates on the meaning of life in terms of the absence of adjustment at any moment and being able to take their own decisions and live their life according to their wish.

A working woman (a teacher, 34-year-old) expressed their feeling and said, “Responsibilities are increasing, and to be free from them is autonomy, and it is never possible in our life.” Participants’ perception of autonomy is life without responsibilities, but they never want to leave the responsibilities either.

Sub-theme 2: Uninterrupted Personal and Professional Life

A working woman (a teacher, 34-year-old), who lives in a joint family, said, “In life, one has to live amidst the responsibilities of work and home, and one has to take care of everyone, due to which problems must be faced.” Duality in the nature of their work creates conflict in life. Another participant (a 32-year-old teacher) said, “I consider myself unable to do my official work amidst the responsibilities of the house and taking care of the family, and to balance these days is autonomy.” Most of the time, overburdening creates a lot of problems in life and balancing between them is part of autonomy. Another significant statement by a participant (a homemaker, 32-year-old), who lives in a joint family, suggested feelings of freedom in such a way:

“They remain tied to the responsibilities of the house. One has to take care of her mother-in-law, father-in-law, brother-in-law and wife and to feel free from all duties, this is autonomy, and at home, you have the right to make decisions for yourself.” A sense of responsibility may decrease feelings of autonomy because it leads to adjusting within the family and society and putting others first. It also revealed that being free from responsibility and taking care of others may be said to be more autonomous. If people can take their own decisions, they may feel autonomous.

Theme 2: Changes in the Lives of Women Through Autonomy

Autonomy, which is freedom from one’s emotions and behavior being judged by others, changes a person’s life through liberty, increased self-awareness, self-efficacy and social involvement.

Sub-theme 1: Inner Satisfaction/Gratification

The participant (a homemaker, 33-year-old) said, “We do things as per our wish…………....a woman does not suppress her desires. It gives her mental peace, and she enjoys life.” Another participant (a teacher, 32-year-old) said, “When you feel autonomous, you are living your life and find immense happiness in it……….and at the same time, you get inner satisfaction and can do your work properly.” Freedom to work according to their priorities without suppressing their desires leads to autonomy, mental peace, and satisfaction in life.

Sub-theme 2: Self-identity

Changes come about in life through autonomy as women express their thoughts in terms of “self-identity.” A participant (a homemaker, 32-year-old) said, “Get a chance to attend social events and learn about society and the nation.” Another participant (a 33-year-old teacher) described self-awareness and said, “On getting autonomy, you meet different people and get a chance to know your society and understand your thinking and behavior.” A significant shred of evidence by one of the participants (a homemaker, 32-year-old) said, “Recognition in society and family are equally important for making decisions, so working provides self-worth and social status, which enables us to make decisions easily and independently.” The ability of women to make their own healthcare decisions independently is crucial for improving women’s and children’s health outcomes. According to evidence from other emerging nations, the main predictors of women’s authority in decision-making are family structure and age.

Theme 3: Psychosocial Well-being

Psychosocial well-being may be conceptualized in terms of the psychological, social, and subjective element that contributes to holistic persons realizing their full potential as contributors to society, which includes factors such as physical, economic, social, mental, emotional, cultural, and spiritual health (Kumar, 2020).

Sub-theme 1: Self-efficacy

One important outcome of autonomy in women’s lives is self-efficacy, which fosters psychosocial well-being. A participant (a homemaker, 33-year-old) said, “Autonomy helps me to adapt to the environment not only at home but also outside the home. It creates confidence in me so that I can show my abilities in society.” This statement indicates that a person’s sense of autonomy can help them become more confident and capable, which in turn fosters better and more harmonious person-environment fit within the community and with the outside world. A participant (a teacher, 32-year-old) said, “When I get the opportunity to establish myself freely in my workplace…..and I get the chance to explore new opportunities for my own development and learn new things, which makes life more comfortable and simple.” These lines elaborated that autonomy helps a person establish herself, get new opportunities and learn new things, leading to a better life.

Sub-theme 2: Self-concept/Self-esteem

The importance of autonomy in life is another noteworthy aspect. For being healthy, autonomy in life is necessary because it promotes psychological well-being. A participant (a homemaker, 33-year-old) said, “Autonomy gives happiness and allows knowing oneself in life.” The participant (a teacher, 31-year-old) said, “Autonomy leads to a lack of peace in the family. Nevertheless, your opportunities for growth increase and you experience inner peace.” As a result, the participant’s perspectives on autonomy highlighted the elements of psychological well-being—happiness, pleasure, and wish fulfillment—as a threat to family peace, as well as, a chance to self-development. Hence, family peace and self-development are seen as contradictory to each other in some way.

Sub-theme 3: Social Well-being

Social well-being can be understood as healthy social relationships and improved social contacts, which promote better communication skills and active participation in social activities. A participant (a teacher, 33-year-old) said, “When you feel completely free, your social status improves, and you feel socially strong. Your communication skills improve, your contacts expand, and you participate actively in social events.” These lines elaborated that autonomy improves social status and capabilities, promoting active social participation and establishing a robust socio-economic status. Another participant (a homemaker, 32-year-old) said, “If you feel independent, you have no interference in decision-making, no inferiority complex in your mind, and you can prove yourself in society.” It is shown that living with high motivation leads to efficacy in individuals to express themselves and to prove themselves capable in society.

Discussion

This research study explores the meaning of autonomy, life changes and women’s psychosocial well-being. Few researches have been done in a qualitative framework to study the autonomy and well-being of women (Figure 1). The socio-cultural environment influences women’s individual-level qualities and decision-making, and autonomy is a crucial intermediary factor between women’s status and productive outcomes. Given that women generally lack decision-making autonomy in Indian society, it is vital to understand the factors influencing this autonomy and how it varies among regions and socio-cultural contexts within the same nation. Women work longer hours than men (Fuchs, 1989; Rivero, 2018) because they are required to spend more time in the care economy or do difficult-to-measure household tasks, a 24-hour job (Fuchs, 1989). A woman’s level of empowerment is determined by her level of economic, educational, and physical well-being, as well as her participation in home decision-making, political awareness, and psychological fortitude.

One of the objectives of this research was to extract the meaning of autonomy from the perspective of women. Results revealed that self-improvement, being carefree in family and society, and exercising discretion in making decisions are all parts of having a sense of autonomy. The ability to educate oneself and make decisions regarding one’s problems is known as autonomy. Through autonomy, it becomes easier to manage access to money resources, other forms of wealth, and social resources like status, knowledge, and power within the family and community. People constantly interact with their environment. While the need for autonomy is present in all regardless of background or culture (Chen et al., 2015; Chirkov et al., 2010), it depends on the environment for nutrients to grow. People are most reflective of themselves when autonomous, endorsing their thoughts, attitudes, and behavior (Ryan & Deci, 2004). It is innate to feel in control and validated by oneself. If their environment encourages and supports this desire, all people will naturally want to fulfill this need.

Data analysis also revealed various conceptual elements regarding autonomy, such as a sense of liberty, continuity of personal and professional life without interruption, development of creativity and problem-solving competencies. According to the self-determination theory (SDT), autonomy, competence, and relatedness are recognized as the fundamental needs of people everywhere and are controlled by society and people to enhance their well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2004). A sense of liberty highlights an individual’s emotional constraints, providing the chance to do something independently and be free from all life and family responsibilities. Independence from any property of the objects of volition, autonomy is the quality that makes something a law to itself (Kant, 1870). It implies that a person with an autonomous character can rule themselves without the interference of any outside authority.

Another objective of this research was to find out whether changes occur in the life of women after realizing autonomy. Results revealed that two subthemes emerged as inner satisfaction/gratification and self-identity, subsequent consequences of autonomy. One subtheme is internal satisfaction/gratification developed through absolute satisfaction/contentment, which includes happiness, fulfillment, enjoyment, peace, etc. Ryan and Deci (2001) argue that achieving goals can increase happiness and that satisfying these demands is a prerequisite for long-term well-being and average growth.

Another subtheme is self-identity, which results from maintaining self-identity, achievement, recognition and respect, etc. Self-awareness and autonomy are frequently linked in discussions (Moleiro et al., 2017). Self-awareness is awareness of one’s thoughts, desires, and wants (Zey & Windmann, 2022). According to Acharya et al. (2010), age and occupation are substantially connected with women’s decision-making autonomy.

The last objective was to understand women’s psychological well-being regarding autonomy. Under the theme of psychological well-being, three subthemes emerged: self-efficacy, self-concept/esteem and social well-being. First, self-efficacy incorporates increasing one’s capabilities or ability by learning the managing techniques in society and the environment and developing the chances of self-growth and development. The fulfillment of the psychological demand for autonomy makes a person more autonomous and in control of their circumstances with improved self-control skills (Orkibi & Ronen, 2017). According to Bandura (1998), women with a strong sense of self-efficacy to manage the multiple demands of family and work can play various roles successfully and experience a positive sense of well-being.

Second, self-concept/esteem is shaped by the participants to increase one’s sense of self and self-worth based on awareness, social involvement, and learning to rely on self and live a happier existence. Higher self-esteem, self-confidence, personal empowerment, and assertiveness are all experienced by women who identify as feminists or are exposed to feminist viewpoints (Malkin & Stake, 2004; Yoder et al., 2012). According to studies on successful women in the workplace, feminists and successful women have much in common. Higher self-esteem, high self-efficacy, instrumentality/ masculinity, and autonomy are some traits (Judge & Bono, 2001). Like feminists, high-achieving women exhibit little gender-stereotypical behavior (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987).

One of the three subthemes is social well-being which may be conceptualized as improving social relations and statuses such as extensive contact, better communication skills and active role and position in society. The degree to which a person’s conduct is self-initiated and self-organized is called dispositional autonomy (Weinstein et al., 2012). Only when someone is genuinely willing to act under one’s beliefs and feelings is self-congruent and integrated conduct conceivable (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The authenticity of a person’s behavior is compromised when it is not self-endorsed but instead results from outside factors, such as social pressures (Ryan & Connell, 1989).

Limitations of the Study

Although this research was on a small sample size, a larger sample size combined with quantitative research methodologies may provide an appropriate understanding of some of the psychological and social issues of half the world’s population we could not address. Investigating societal norms and values is necessary to understand why the practice persists. This exploratory research offered a conceptual framework which has to be tested on the ground for verification and validation, and it should not be limited to women: girls’ psychological difficulties and lifestyles can also be understood and explored using this framework.

Recommendations and Future Directions

The researchers may do a research study on a large sample using the quantitative approach to understand the causal factors to establish the autonomy and well-being of women in society. This research would be helpful for policymakers in building an understanding of the autonomy of women and their well-being. Moreover, the research findings highlight an overview of studying women’s lives. These research findings have implications for improving women’s psychosocial well-being by enhancing their environments where they may take control of their conduct and have the opportunity to determine who they are in their surroundings.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We wish to express our gratitude toward the co-authors for helping in data collection, analyzing the data and to all the participants for their support in this study.

Authors’ Contributions

Equal Contribution.

Availability of Data and Material (Data Transparency)

The dataset is available and can be produced on request only.

Code Availability

Not Applicable.

Consent to Participate

Data was collected with the help of the researchers.

Consent for Publication

Consent to publish was also sought from the co-authors in written form.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article; the research was self-funded.

ORCID iDs

Vipul Kumar

Priyaranjan Maral

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