Social Anxiety and Sensation-seeking Tendencies in Young Adults

Abstract

Background

Social anxiety and sensation seeking are contrasting psychological constructs. Social anxiety is associated with fear of negative evaluation, whereas sensation seeking involves the pursuit of novel, varied, and exciting experiences.

Purpose

This study examined the relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking and explored gender differences in these variables among young adults.

Method

A total of 224 young adults (128 females and 96 males) participated in the study. Data were collected using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) and Zuckerman’s Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS). Independent samples t-tests were used to assess gender differences, and Pearson’s correlation was used to examine the relationship between the variables.

Results

Significant gender differences were found in social anxiety, t(208) = 4.40, p < .001, and sensation seeking, t(208) = 4.64, p < .001, with males scoring higher on both measures. Pearson’s correlation revealed a significant negative relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking (r = −0.243, p < .01).

Conclusion

Higher levels of social anxiety were associated with lower sensation-seeking behaviour. The findings highlight the influence of anxiety on sensation -seeking tendencies, although sociocultural and psychological factors may also shape these behaviours.

Keywords

Social anxiety sensation seeking risk taking young adults

Introduction

Young adulthood is the most vibrant period in human life. Filled with opportunities and enthusiasm, this period marks the peak of life.¹ A lifespan from 18 to 25 years of age is defined as young adulthood or emerging adulthood. Due to various life experiences, this stage also involves a great deal of cognitive, behavioural and social changes.² This period is also known for the new roles and statuses a person adopts in their life. The major indicators of adulthood are moving out of the parental house and living on one’s own, being financially independent, completing one’s education, starting a full-time job, marrying and having children.³ There are many routes to adulthood, and this is also mediated by the developmental reality that people transform the environments in which they are embedded rather than the reverse.⁴ The major issues that young adults face today are the result of the changing social order, such as the need to maintain a healthy lifestyle, build intimate relationships and attain socio-economic stability. As the social order is constantly changing, the demands on the developmental process have become increasingly complex, leading to the emergence of psychosocial issues in this age group. For instance, increased levels of social anxiety and sensation seeking have been related to increased levels of risk-taking behaviour, such as substance use. Young adulthood has therefore become an important period in the study of maladaptive coping mechanisms.⁵

In any country, the building blocks of social development begin with this group of people. In this scenario, the question of how social anxiety and sensation seeking affect young adulthood comes into play.⁶ The important questions that appear here are: How does social anxiety influence young adulthood, and what is the role of sensation seeking in it? According to Yang et al.,⁷ pro-social behaviour faces significant inhibition from social anxiety. Individuals with high social anxiety are disposed to have very poor friendship quality and are at a high risk of lacking close friends. Pro-social behaviour is the act of benefiting others and requires effort, financial costs or even enduring discomfort. When someone has high social anxiety, the person tends not to get involved with others, which results in a reduction in pro-social behaviour.⁷ Social anxiety refers to a severe, constant fear of being watched and judged by other people.⁸ Sensation seeking, which is also referred to as thrill- or excitement-seeking, refers to the need to search for unusual, unique experiences, emotions and sensations.⁹ Positive life outcomes are greatly affected by behaviour that seeks out sensations, as well as behaviours that induce social anxiety. The young person can actively participate in a volunteer activity and exhibit positive, pro-social behaviour towards the environment.¹⁰ This study aims to understand the effect of social anxiety on young adults’ sensation-seeking behaviour, which affects their life outcomes.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics.

Variable	Sample No	Mean	Std Dev
Social anxiety	224	46.35	27.437
Sensation seeking	224	100.18	12.087

Table 2.

Independent Samples t-test (Sensation Seeking).

Variable	Group	Sample No	Mean	Std Dev	t Value	Sig (2-tailed)
Sensation seeking	Male	96	104.087	12.3548	4.353	0.000
Sensation seeking	Female	128	97.2578	11.058	4.353	0.000

Note: Table 2 depicts the outcomes of an independent sample t-test conducted to compare the differences in sensation seeking according to gender among young adults.

Table 3.

Independent Samples t-test (Social Anxiety).

Variable	Group	Sample No	Mean	Std Dev	t Value	Sig (2-tailed)
Social anxiety	Male	96	37.05	25.716	4.587	0.000
Social anxiety	Female	128	53.33	27.191	4.587	0.000

Note: The result of the independent samples t-test to test for gender difference in social anxiety among young people is provided in Table 3.

Table 4.

Correlation Between Social Anxiety and Sensation Seeking.

Variables	Social Anxiety (LSAS)	Sensation Seeking (SSS)
Social anxiety (LSAS)	1	−0.245
Social anxiety (LSAS)	−0.245	1

Notes: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). Table 4 indicates the correlation between the variables of social anxiety and sensitivity seeking. LSAS: Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS); SSS: Sensation-Seeking Scale.

Social Anxiety

It was in the mid-1960s when the mental disorder known as social anxiety disorder was first acknowledged and labelled as a type of phobic disorder.¹¹ Based on ‘Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), American Psychological Association¹² and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 11 and World Health Organisation’,¹³ social anxiety disorder can be defined as a situation when the individual experiences fear from one or more social environments where there is a possibility of being embarrassed, and their fear or anxiety does not correlate with the level of danger according to the person’s culture.^{12, 13}

Usual social situations can be differentiated into those that include interactions, observations and performance. For example, meeting people who can be even strangers, talking in meetings or in groups or any other social gatherings, initiating conversations, communicating with authority figures, occupational activities, going to school or shops, drinking or eating while being observed eating, using public toilets, publicly seen and stage performances like speech.¹⁴ People with social anxiety disorder exhibit excessive worry about those situations, even though worry about some of the aforementioned situations is very frequent in the broader community.¹⁵ Persons who suffer from this disorder are afraid that they may say or do something, whether intentionally or unintentionally, that they believe will be embarrassing or humiliating, such as trembling, blushing, sweating, appearing strange or unwanted and others. According to Miers and Warner,¹⁶ people with social anxiety disorder are likely to make an effort to stay away from situations that they find most frightening. However, this is not always feasible; ultimately, kids will have to deal with a really distressing scenario. Social anxiety typically shows up as severe impairment in social, academic, professional or other spheres of life.¹⁶ Social anxiety disorder cannot be compared to normal shyness or other personality traits that interfere with most aspects of life and are not associated with impairment. Individuals are more likely to receive lower-quality credentials and leave school early, which can impede academic advancement.¹⁷ According to a noteworthy 2001 study by Katzelnick et al.,¹⁸ the salaries of individuals with ‘generalised social anxiety disorder’ were 10% less than those of the non-clinical group. On average, people with social anxiety have fewer associates and experience more difficulty making friends and adjusting to them.¹⁹ They are less likely to get married, exhibit greater divorce tendencies and have fewer children.²⁰ The young adults who experience social anxiety disorders experience severe anxiety, self-consciousness and humiliation when they interact with people. Social anxiety disorders disrupt life, relationships, daily routines, work, school and other daily activities.²¹ It is just too much to bear, as most of those who suffer from social anxiety disorder are employed; they become less efficient workers because of their condition and have higher rates of absenteeism.¹⁸

Although certain community studies indicate that women are somewhat more susceptible to social anxiety disorder, both men and women regularly seek treatment for this condition.²² According to Turk et al.,²³ women in a clinical sample scored well on a variety of social anxiety assessment instruments and displayed a greater fear of social situations. According to a study conducted in New Zealand, 11.1% of 18-year-olds fit the criteria for social anxiety disorder.²⁴ However, a large British epidemiological survey by Ford et al. in 2003 found that only 0.32% of people aged 5–15 had a diagnosis of the disorder, which was lower than generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), specific phobia and separation anxiety disorder but higher than post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and panic disorder.²⁵ Another study conducted in German indicated rates of 4% for 14–17-year-olds,²⁰ whereas a big US-based study revealed almost identical results for 9–11-year-olds.²⁶

Social anxiety from a personality approach is explained by the Self-Presentation Theory of Social Anxiety, which proposes two determinants of social anxiety: the desire for self-presentation, which refers to an individual’s desire to create a certain image in front of others, and social self-efficacy, which refers to one’s confidence in one’s ability to do so.^{27, 28} The cognitive model of social anxiety highlights that entering a feared situation activates a set of beliefs and assumptions that have been shaped by one’s own previous experiences.^{27, 28} These presumptions and ideas are connected to the person and how they believe they ought to act in social settings because these presumptions make socially anxious people more likely to perceive certain social circumstances as risky and to forecast that they would not come up to their own frequently high expectations.^{27, 28}

Sensation Seeking

Sensation seeking is ‘a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical, social, legal and financial risks for the sake of such experience’.²⁹ Four aspects can be used to describe these characteristics: disinhibition, experience seeking, thrill and adventure seeking and susceptibility to boredom.³⁰ The explanation now rests on a model that is influenced by biological, psychophysiological, social and genetic factors.^{31, 32} These factors are sufficient to influence specific behaviours, attitudes and preferences throughout life. High sensation-seekers tend to engage in behaviours that raise their level of arousal.³² Sensation seeking involves aspects like the use of drugs, dangerous driving and engagement in thrilling behaviours.³³ While not being the primary motive for behaviour, risk-taking and sensation seeking are associated.^{34, 35} As widely acknowledged, a number of destructive behaviours, such as substance abuse, negligent driving and engaging in unsafe sexual acts, have been shown to be associated with sensation-seeking behaviour.^{36, 37} However, studies have shown that a tendency towards new and exciting experiences may also be exhibited outside of health-endangering behaviour through recreational involvement and occupation selection.^{38, 39} Individuals with high sensation-seeking tendencies always strive to seek novel and thrilling experiences, which may elevate their levels of stimulation and excitement. According to the study,^{38, 39} increased creativity and curiosity result from exposure to various perspectives, situations, environments and ideas.

Social Anxiety and Sensation Seeking

Sensation seeking and social anxiety are two different, yet perhaps related, motivational processes. These traits can be found in the same individuals, even though they appear to be theoretically contradictory, given that they appear to depend on approach and avoidance of motivation, respectively. As research suggests, there is a moderately positive relationship between problematic smartphone use and social anxiety, and social anxiety plays a significant part in the diversity of addictive behavioural patterns.⁴⁰ On the other hand, sensation seeking is not a predictor of problematic smartphone use in baseline situations. However, it has been established that sensation seeking and abstinence have a relationship in that high sensation-seekers show problematic smartphone use after a short abstinence.⁴⁰ People with high sensation seeking may be more motivated to compensate for stimulation in situations where it is limited; hence, this is a possibility for people with social anxiety.⁴¹

If social anxiety and sensation seeking are simultaneously heightened, this might result in seeking stimulation through other high-arousal-related activities while avoiding social interactions due to the risk of being judged. These behaviours related to sensation seeking might function as a regulating mechanism in this situation, which might modulate or distract from the anxiety.⁴² To understand the relationship between conflicting threat and reward sensitivities and their impact on coping mechanisms, especially in a technology-related context, this relationship should be understood.

Literature Review

Previous research studies^{43, 44} on sensation seeking have established that this personality factor has a strong association with risk-taking behaviour and social factors, especially during young adulthood and adolescence. A 2025 study by Arti and Faraz⁴³ examined the relationship between sensation seeking and resilience in young adolescents and found a strong association between risk-taking behaviour and sensation seeking. The study also established the importance of peer influence on risk-taking behaviour, indicating that this factor plays a crucial role in young adulthood.⁴³

Advances in technology have allowed researchers to investigate sensation seeking in novel and innovative ways. Daugherty et al.⁴⁴ explored the correlation between sensation seeking and fear response using a virtual reality height simulation study and established that individuals who exhibit higher behavioural sensation-seeking tendencies have lower fear responses, especially for men. The study indicates that these two methods of assessing sensation seeking capture different facets of this personality factor.⁴⁴

The correlation between sensation seeking and the problem with technology use among adolescents was evaluated by Annalakshmi et al.⁴⁵ In their research, the authors found that individuals prone to boredom are likely to have problems with mobile phone addiction. There are also gender differences in the research, where men demonstrate greater problematic technology use and sensation seeking.⁴⁵

Over the last few years, studies have explored the association between personality characteristics and social media behaviour. Ding and Ma⁴⁶ explored the association between social media addiction, sensation seeking and social anxiety among college students. The results showed that sensation seeking was positively related to social media addiction. Furthermore, poor social media use was found to be significantly predicted by social anxiety.⁴⁶

In a similar vein, Caqueo-Urizar et al.⁴⁷ assessed the impact of sensation seeking as a mediator between substance abuse and mental problems amongst adolescents in Northern Chile. Environmental problems and sensation seeking could act as predictors or mediators of the relationship between environmental variables and mental well-being, as revealed by their findings that environmental concerns and sensation seeking collectively mediated the relationship between substance abuse and emotionality and conduct problems.⁴⁷

Past research also sheds some light on the relationship that exists between sensation seeking and anxiety. Blankstein⁴⁸ investigated the connection between college students’ anxiety reactivity and sensation seeking. The results of the research revealed that there is an inverse relationship that exists between sensation seeking and anxiety reactivity.⁴⁸

Even though a significant amount of research has been conducted on sensation seeking and social anxiety, the two variables are mostly examined independently or in relation to external behavioural outcomes.⁴⁹ Most of the research on social anxiety has concentrated on factors such as fear of negative evaluation, avoidance, emotional distress and digital pathology.⁵⁰ Conversely, research on sensation seeking has primarily focused on its correlation with behavioural outcomes such as substance use, risk-taking, impulsiveness and behavioural addictions.⁵¹ Even though gender differences in both sensation seeking and social anxiety are well documented, where females exhibit higher levels of social anxiety and males exhibit higher levels of sensation-seeking tendencies,⁴⁴ there is a lack of research on the relationship between the two variables in the same population. Sensation seeking and social anxiety have been examined independently in studies of young adults, but there are limited studies that focused on the relationship between these two factors while taking into account gender differences, even though young adulthood is a crucial phase in development.⁴⁶ For more information on the association between the two concepts and their application in the understanding of young adults’ general personality and emotional state, there is a need for further investigation of sensation seeking and social anxiety among young adults, considering gender differences.

Methodology

Aim

The aim of the study is to investigate gender disparities in these characteristics among students and the connection between social anxiety and sensation seeking.

Objectives

To evaluate the connection between students’ sensation seeking and social anxiety.

To investigate how male and female students’ levels of social anxiety differ.

To investigate how male and female students differ in their need for sensations.

Hypothesis

H₁: There is a relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking.

H₂: There is a difference between male and female students in social anxiety.

H₃: There is a difference between male and female students in sensation seeking.

Design

The design of this research was cross-sectional and correlational. This research considered the relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking, in addition to gender differences among young adults in relation to the two. Participants were given the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), along with the Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS), to measure their levels of social anxiety and sensation seeking. The scores recorded from the tests were then analysed to show any connection between social anxiety and sensation seeking. Also, the scores of men and women in terms of these variables were compared.⁵² Even though participants were first selected randomly, in this study, they all took the test using an online survey method. To minimise response biases, assurances of confidentiality were provided to all participants; they were encouraged to answer truthfully. Demographic data concerning age and gender were also collected. The answers were coded and analysed statistically.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The inclusion criteria for selecting the subjects for the research included those who were (a) between the ages of 19 and 29 and (b) citizens of India. Subjects who were either younger or older than the stipulated ages and were not citizens of India were not included in the study. For the current research, the subjects were comprised of young adults from different social strata. The sample size for the current study was 224 young adults, among whom 128 were females and 96 males.

Tools

This research includes variables such as social anxiety and sensation seeking that have been standardised by professionals in the field and formulated by the researcher. Only self-report questionnaires were used in the present study. The selected instruments are:

1. LSAS

A 24-item self-rated measure called the LSAS is used to gauge how social anxiety affects you in a range of contexts. Dr Michael R. Liebowitz,⁵³ a psychiatrist and researcher, created the LSAS in 1987. LSAS is rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 3 points (none/never to severe/usually) in relation to the anxiety and avoidance of various social settings encountered during the preceding week. In addition to the original English, it has already been translated, modified and verified into four other languages: French, Spanish, Hebrew and Turkish.⁵⁴

a. Reliability

Alpha values measuring the consistency of the LSAS-SR ranged between 0.89 and 0.83 in the clinical sample, while in the case of non-clinical sample they ranged between 0.93 and 0.88 for the subscale and total scores. The five components yielded low alpha values ranged between 0.63 and 0.43 in the clinical sample and 0.80 and 0.58 in the non-clinical sample.⁵⁴

b. Validity

The anxiety and avoidance subscales were highly correlated with the total score of the LSAS-SR (correlation 0.93 and 0.93, in the non-clinical and clinical samples, respectively). There was also a high correlation between the avoidance and anxiety subscales (non-clinical correlation 0.73; clinical correlation 0.70). Unlike the clinical sample, whose correlation ranges from moderate to low (0.27–0.52), the non-clinical sample showed a moderate correlation range for all the five variables measured by LSAS-SR (0.37–0.58).⁵⁴

c. Scoring

The LSAS assigns a score of 0 for no anxiety, 1 for mild anxiety, 2 for moderate anxiety and 3 for severe anxiety. The scores for avoidance questions are as follows: 0 = never, 1 = occasionally, 2 = frequently and 3 = severely. An overall score, with a maximum of 144 points, is obtained by adding the total scores for the fear and avoidance sections.⁵⁵

2. SSS Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Question-naire (ZKA-PQ)

One of the most popular psychological tools for assessing sensation seeking is the SSS. Zuckerman⁵⁶ developed it at the University of Delaware in 1964. In order to better understand personality traits, including neuroticism, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy, Zuckerman developed the scale. The SSS-V, or SSS, is a 40-item questionnaire that has undergone several revisions and is currently in its 1978 edition. The SSS consists of one overall score and four main scales (Disinhibition, Boredom Susceptibility, Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Experience Seeking). The SSS produces four primary scales and a single total score from 40 items, each of which has two possibilities from which the participant must select. Scale scores are calculated as the sum of respective items. Some items are reverse scored.⁵⁷

a. Reliability

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, which varied from 0.83 to 0.86, were used to assess the entire measure’s internal consistency dependability. Generally, the subscales’ alpha coefficients were within the range of 0.6–0.8. For males, females and English and American samples, there were no great differences among these coefficients.⁵⁶ Experience seeking was the only scale with lower alpha coefficients than Form IV. Despite having fewer things than before, they are still searching.

b. Validity

Correlations between the NEO-PI and SSS-V within the convergent/concurrent validity section are provided by Zuckerman.⁵⁶ Positive correlations of overall scores of SSS-V with extraversion (r = 0.22) and openness to experience (r = 0.45) were noted. According to Aluja et al.,⁵⁸ there is also a correlation between the revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and the total score of the SSS-V. In particular, the SSS-V total had positive and strong correlations with extraversion and openness to experience, while the SSS subscales revealed different results.⁵⁸ SSS Forms IV and V have been found to have diverse relationships with experiences connected with novelty and intensity of experiences and low inhibitions of approach behaviour in risky situations with respect to criterion/predictive validity.³⁷ Experiments using sensory deprivation were the main emphasis of these studies, while involvement in novel and/or dangerous research was far less extensive. Hoyle et al.⁵⁹ discovered mean impact sizes of 0.25 for multiple sexual partners and 0.19 for general sex risk-taking in their meta-analyses of sexual risk-taking in 38 studies using the SSS.⁵⁹

c. Scoring

The SSS-V includes 40 forced-choice questions, each having two options, and participants are required to choose the alternative that best describes them. Each question is scored either as 1 or 0, depending on whether the sensation seeking or non-sensation seeking alternative is chosen. The raw score is calculated by adding up the scores of the questions of each sub-scale separately. Four sub-scales, including 10 questions each, make up the scale. These sub-scales include the Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Experience Seeking, Disinhibition and Boredom Susceptibility sub-scales.⁵⁶ Adding the score of all the 40 questions yields the total SSS score, which reflects higher sensation seeking with increased scores.

Procedure

This research was undertaken to establish whether there is any correlation between the level of social anxiety and sensation seeking among participants. This article also explores any differences that may exist between men and women in terms of the two variables mentioned above. Data were collected from young people using an online questionnaire through Google Forms. Ethical guidelines were followed to ensure confidentiality throughout the process. The Google Form provided a brief description of the goals and ethical aspects of the study and was distributed through WhatsApp and emails to participants. The Zuckerman SSS⁵⁶ and LSAS⁵³ questionnaires were used to collect the data. All questions had to be answered. Rapport was created among participants, and the assurance of the purpose of the exercise and confidentiality in handling their information were guaranteed to participants before answering any of the questions in the survey. Incorrect and omitted answers were sorted out after completing data collection. The data were coded and sorted according to proper categories and transferred to Excel spreadsheets.

Data Analysis

Statistical analysis was carried out for the data. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated to find the association between social anxiety and sensation seeking. An independent samples t-test was conducted to determine gender differences in social anxiety and sensation seeking.

Results

According to the outcomes, there is a statistically significant difference between males (mean score = 104.087; standard deviation [SD] = 12.3548) and females (mean score = 97.2578; SD = 11.058) concerning sensation seeking, where males scored higher. The calculated t-value is 4.353, while the significance value is p = .000 (p < .05). Consequently, the null hypothesis was rejected.

From the data provided, there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups: male (M = 37.05; SD = 25.716) and female (M = 53.33; SD = 27.191), and the latter scored higher in the variable of interest. This was indicated by the obtained t-value of 4.587, with the significance value being p = .000 (p < .05). Hence, the null hypothesis is not accepted.

Pearson’s correlation coefficient is calculated to be −0.245, which shows that the two variables are negatively correlated. This implies that an increase in social anxiety will lead to decreased sensation-seeking behaviours. Hence, it accepts the hypothesis.

Descriptive statistics for social anxiety and sensation seeking are presented in Table 1. Gender differences in sensation seeking are presented in Table 2. Gender differences in social anxiety are presented in Table 3. The correlation between social anxiety and sensation seeking is presented in Table 4.

Discussion

Fear of social evaluation, avoidance of social situations and increased self-consciousness are the main features of social anxiety.¹² Individuals with high social anxiety may perceive social environments as threatening and therefore avoid situations that involve novelty or unpredictability. Sensation seeking, on the other hand, entails a predilection for unusual and stimulating encounters.⁹

The present study aimed to examine the relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking among a sample of 224 individuals. To determine the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated. The results revealed a weak negative correlation (r = –0.245) between social anxiety and sensation seeking. This indicates that individuals with higher levels of social anxiety tend to exhibit lower levels of sensation-seeking behaviour. Although the strength of the correlation is weak, it supports the hypothesis that these two constructs are inversely related. People with high levels of sensation seeking are therefore more likely to deliberately seek out thrilling and difficult activities. This difference in motivating tendencies could explain the negative correlation between the two variables. This shows that social anxiety cannot necessarily limit the sensation-seeking behaviour of the subjects, as shown by the presence of a weak correlation between the two factors in the current research. The existence of a weak relationship indicates variability in how the behaviour occurs, since there is evidence of different manifestations of behaviour due to other factors like social anxiety. As an example, Turgeman et al.⁴⁰ showed that those who scored high on social anxiety may adopt other behaviours like overusing their smartphones, thus providing some sort of compensation or avoidance strategy.

This study also investigated gender differences in sensation seeking. For 128 female and 96 male participants, an independent samples t-test was conducted. The results were statistically significant (t = 4.353, p < .05), showing a difference between males and females in sensation-seeking behaviour. The findings indicated that males exhibited elevated levels of sensation seeking in comparison to females. This study also investigated gender differences in social anxiety. An independent samples t-test was conducted among 128 female and 96 male participants. The obtained t-value of 4.587, with the significance value being p = .000 (p < .05), reveals that there is a difference between males and females in social anxiety. From the findings, it was established that women exhibited higher levels of social anxiety than men. On the other hand, men were observed to have higher levels of sensation seeking as opposed to women.

An effective theoretical perspective that would allow for understanding of the established relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory.⁶⁰ Where the activation of the Behavioral Activation System (BAS), associated with reward sensitivity, causes an increased tendency towards approach-oriented behaviour such as sensation seeking, the activation of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), associated with punishment sensitivity, causes behaviours associated with anxiety.⁶¹ The fact that men reported more sensation seeking whereas women reported more social anxiety may suggest differential activation of BIS and BAS within genders. Such results support the idea of independence of BIS and BAS and possible opposition of their roles.⁶²

These results are consistent with the results of prior research regarding sensation seeking. Rahmani and Lavasani⁶³ found that males have more levels of sensation seeking compared with females, which refers to the need for novel and intense experiences.⁶³ A study done by Fischer and Evers⁶⁴ identified that there is a profound gender differences in sensation seeking among students. Male participants scored higher on subscales such as ‘thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility’ compared to female participants. These findings indicate that males may be more inclined to seek stimulating and risky experiences.

Gender differences in anxiety may be influenced by a variety of social, psychological and biological factors. Societal expectations and gender roles can influence the expression of emotions and responses to social situations. For instance, social norms often encourage women to conform to societal expectations and behavioural standards, which may influence their social interactions and emotional responses.⁶⁵ Biological factors may also contribute to gender differences in anxiety. Genetic predispositions, hormonal influences and neurochemical processes can affect emotional regulation and vulnerability to anxiety. Hormonal fluctuations, particularly during the menstrual cycle, may influence mood and anxiety levels in females. Differences in brain structure and neural functioning related to emotional processing may also contribute to variations in anxiety experiences between genders. Research has shown that differences in brain structure, neurochemical processes and stress response also play a crucial role in determining the risk of developing anxiety.⁶⁶ Studies have shown that fluctuations in hormones across the menstrual cycle correlate with heightened stress response and anxiety in females.⁶⁷ Neuroimaging studies have also shown that there are differences in neural activation between males and females in the context of anxiety. Specifically, differences in brain regions responsible for emotion regulation show differential activation in both genders.⁶⁸ Other psychological factors that can contribute to differences in sensation seeking are personality characteristics and mental processes. For instance, more extraverted individuals tend to be more motivated to seek sensations, whereas individuals who are more neurotic tend to be more anxious.⁶⁹ Sociocultural influences further shape sensation-seeking behaviours. Cultural norms often associate risk-taking and adventurous behaviour with masculinity, which may encourage men to engage in sensation-seeking activities.⁷⁰ In contrast, women may sometimes experience social restrictions or criticism when engaging in behaviours perceived as risky or unconventional. These social expectations may influence how individuals perceive and express sensation-seeking tendencies.⁷¹

The negative link between social anxiety and sensation seeking that was noted in this study has been supported by past research. Wagner’s study⁷² investigated ‘sensation seeking, anxiety sensitivity and risky behaviours’ among undergraduate students. The results showed that sensation seeking was a predictor of risky behaviours, especially substance use. This indicates that people who are high sensation seekers are likely to partake in risky and exciting activities.⁷² Personality factors may also have a part to play in this association. Individuals with high neuroticism are likely to have anxiety and emotional instability, while people with high extraversion are likely to have excitement, social and novelty-seeking tendencies. Such personality factors may explain the negative correlation between social anxiety and sensation seeking.⁷¹ Similarly, Comeau et al.⁷³ have examined the role of personality factors like anxiety sensitivity and sensation seeking in the motivations of substance use among adolescents. They have found that people who are high on sensation seeking and low on anxiety sensitivity are more likely to use substances for enhancement purposes, while people who are high on anxiety sensitivity are more likely to use substances for social conformity or coping purposes.⁷³ Moreover, cognitive processes have a vital role in this association. Individuals with high social anxiety have been observed to have intentional bias, which may result in avoidance. Such a cognitive process may result in low motivation to participate in novel and stimulating activities, hence lowering the sensation-seeking scale score.⁷⁴

Conclusion

Additionally, this article has explored gender differences in these constructs, together with the relationship between social anxiety and sensation seeking. The findings reveal the presence of a small negative correlation between social anxiety and sensation seeking, implying that increased levels of social anxiety correlate with reduced sensation seeking. Nonetheless, the relationship is fairly weak, indicating variability of behavioural expression. Both variables exhibit considerable differences by gender. Social anxiety scores are higher among women, while sensation-seeking scores are higher among men. In support of this opposing pattern of expression of these constructs, it may be argued that social anxiety and sensation seeking operate differently among genders, instead of being expressed in high levels simultaneously within a certain gender group. The findings seem plausible in relation to Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, whereby social anxiety has been associated with the BIS, while sensation-seeking behaviour is linked with BAS. There may be some differences in how these two systems are balanced among different subjects, as illustrated by the findings. From all of this, it can be stated that even though there is a negative correlation between social anxiety and sensation-seeking behaviour, such a relationship is not absolute, and there will be different behaviour patterns in individuals due to psychological and sociocultural reasons.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflict of Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Gopal Chandra Mahakud

Adwaith Bino

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