Abstract
Using music and voice to express cultural identity is a tradition inherent in musical communities throughout the world. Today, while traditions can be affected by popular culture and modern technologies, contemporary practices in music production and aesthetics can aid in communicating and sustaining cultural heritage.
Taiwan has a diverse cultural makeup being a former colonial territory and now home to descendants of mainland Chinese immigrants together with its own indigenous peoples. This article explores the music of contemporary Taiwanese indigenous singers of Amis heritage. Specifically, the music and production techniques in recordings of two female singer–songwriters, Ado Kaliting Pacidal and Ilid Kaolo, are explored.
Pacidal and Kaolo combine the Amis language and themes of aboriginal identity with a range of contemporary musical styles, narratives and production techniques. For our analysis, we draw on cultural musicology in terms of lyrical and musical expression, and focus on how production techniques and aesthetics (including processing and treatment of the voice, effects and mixing) are used to enhance that expression. In doing so, we draw attention to the relationship between contemporary music production and cultural significance.
We conclude by determining how space is created for ‘where the ancestors once walked’ (Pacidal 2012a).
Introduction
In contemporary music, the singer–songwriter is defined by his or her authorship of the entire musical work. Unlike other models of music production, where labour is divided between singers, instrumentalists, composers, lyricists and so on, the singer–songwriter is solely and personally responsible for the song’s creation and expression (Brackett 1995, p. 15). The contemporary singer–songwriter is also associated with autobiographical exploration and representation through the song’s lyrical narrative (Brackett 2008, p. xii). Other modes of singer–songwriter expression include the use of musical traditions in composition, and conveying emotion through embodied performance, particularly through the singing voice.
The two artists and their works examined in this article, Ado Kaliting Pacidal (Sun and Moon, 2012) and Ilid Kaolo ((My Carefree Life, 2011), are singer–songwriters within contemporary Taiwanese aboriginal music; directly conscious of issues relating to aboriginal heritage and identity, but also informed by wider musical influences. This relatively new category of indigenous singer–songwriters possesses ‘a personal style, underwritten by a strong aboriginal consciousness’ (Tan 2008, p. 230). Their music may include fusion of aboriginal melodies and musical traditions with rock, dance or pop genres, and Western instrumentation such as guitar and synthesizer (Tan 2008). Situating indigenous language and identity within pop music requires finding a space for artist expression using the media of voice, lyrics, musical arrangement and production technology.
Background
The Amis people constitute a population of approximately 200,000, and are one of 14 officially recognized indigenous Taiwanese tribes (Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines, n.d.), each of which has its own language, traditions and culture. Taiwan is home to over 23 million inhabitants, around 2 per cent of whom are indigenous, with the remainder being Han Chinese ((World Population Review 2013). Throughout the twentieth century, much of Taiwan’s traditional indigenous heritage was marginalized. This marginalization is in part due to the history between Taiwan and mainland China, dating back to the 1949 foundation of the Republic of China (ROC) within Taiwan by Chiang Kai-Shek. The ensuing suppression of local Taiwanese culture, including language, arts and music, in favour of mainland Chinese heritage, is well documented; Shapiro (2001) notes that schoolchildren were punished for speaking languages other than Mandarin and Taiwanese-language music and television programs were not permitted to exceed a set quota. Since the late 1980s, following the end of martial law in 1987, there has been an increased focus on developing a Taiwanese identity (‘Taiwanization’) separated from mainland influences. Ho and Law (2002) discuss how this coincided with a conceptual shift towards ‘Taiwan’ as a nation, rather than a political definition based around the ROC in relation to China (Ho & Law 2002, p. 341). Calling this movement ‘de-Chinalization’, Wu (2007, p. 148) points out that this new focus on a distinctly Taiwanese culture recognizes ‘communal life experiences of Fujian people, Hakka people, aborigines, and new Chinese immigrants’.
Popular and Indigenous Music in Taiwan
Taiwan is also a highly influential centre for music production, particularly for Mandopop, the dominant form of Mandarin-language pop music in both Taiwan and mainland China. Moskowitz (2010, p. 2) highlights this relationship when he notes that ‘Taiwan, which houses 23 million people, [dictates] the musical tastes of a nation of 1.3 billion’. Following the relaxation of language quotas in Taiwanese media in the late 1980s, languages other than Mandarin were able to enter popular music alongside mainstream Mandopop. Gao (2000) cites the example of Hakka, a non-aboriginal minority language, being ‘woven into pop music’, which had the effect of revitalizing a language which previously was only heard in traditional contexts. Guy (2001, p. 4) similarly observes the increase in the use of Hokkien (a Chinese dialect) in popular music, drawing on both contemporary life in Taiwan and traditions.
Aboriginal music comprises a wide range of genres, from ethnographic recordings to independent recording artists, but is definable by its articulation of indigenous identity (Tan 2008, p. 230). Indigenous performers and languages are likewise now seen and heard in pop contexts. As discussed by Tan (2008), early aboriginal popular music recordings appeared in the 1960s, and were influenced heavily by Japanese enka and karaoke; however, their popularity was largely limited to aboriginal communities. The 1994 hit song, ‘Return to Innocence’, by German group Enigma, which sampled the aboriginal Amis singer Difang Duana (Kuo Ying-nan), was an important precedent in brokering an aboriginal presence in popular music more widely, partly because of the lengthy legal battles fought by Difang to have his uncredited contribution to the song recognized (Taylor 2001). Guy (2001, p. 5) notes that the international popularity of ‘Return to Innocence’ directly inspired one of the earliest uses of aboriginal language and song in popular music within Taiwan, namely, ‘Huanju ge’ by Xin Baodao Kangle Dui (New Formosa Band) featuring singer A-von, a member of the Paiwan tribe. However, while ‘Return to Innocence’ maintains Difang’s sampled voice as a ‘sign of the ethnic/exotic unspoiled by technology, or even modernity’ (Taylor 2001, p. 131), Xin Baodao Kangle Dui sing the chorus themselves, using aboriginal song and language as a way of expressing contemporary Taiwanese unity (Taylor 2001). Indigenous identity has thus become a key aspect of present-day Taiwan’s culture. Guy (2001, p. 10) notes that ‘the aboriginal peoples, their music, and culture are among the most powerful symbols of Taiwan’, while Wilson (2009, p. 422) remarks on a ‘generalized fascination, or even obsession, with all things “aboriginal (yuanzhu min)” ’.
Since then, several indigenous artists have enjoyed some mainstream popularity, with various levels of reference to their heritage. Two of the most well-known aboriginal singers include A-mei (Chang Hui-Mei) and the aforementioned Difang Duana. A-mei, born Gulilai Amit, a member of the Puyuma group, is a remarkably successful Mandopop artist. Her debut song, ‘Sisters’ (1996), included an introduction in the Puyuma language, but since then her output has been predominantly in Mandarin, and occasionally in English and Japanese (Guy 2005, p. 572). Her 2009 album, Amit, despite using her aboriginal name, includes songs in Mandarin and Taiwanese (Hokkien/Minnan), but no Puyuma language content (Hsin 2012). Moskowitz (2010, p. 82) suggests that A-mei’s use of aboriginal imagery is employed as a means to wear revealing clothing, positioning indigenous people as the sexualized ‘other’. He notes that aboriginal artists are often typecast as having ‘better rhythm’ and writing songs about nature (Moskowitz 2010, p. 39), and that most of what is termed ‘aboriginal music’ is, in fact, ‘a set of symbols to be used within Chinese-language songs’, rather than a far-reaching engagement with aboriginal themes. At the other end of the spectrum, Difang Duana’s work (along with his wife, Igay, and other family members) after the ‘Return to Innocence’ incident combines traditional song with modern production technology, resulting in his 1999 ‘world music’ album, Circle of Life (Chang 1999).
A significant amount of aboriginal music exists between, or outside, these polarities. Indigenous-language popular music has recently been recognized with its own category within Taiwan’s annual music showcase, the Golden Melody Awards. Tan (2008, p. 232) notes that the award has been criticized as a form of political exclusion, setting indigenous-language music apart from more general categories, but concludes that it has been useful in raising the profile of younger aboriginal artists. There is a lingering stereotypical association of indigenous artists with the acoustic and ‘world music’ genres; Hatfield (2011a, p. 4) discusses this problematic expectation, giving the example of Bunun artist Biung, who ‘wanted to sound like Jay Chow and compete with Mandopop singers but still maintain recognition as an indigenous artist’. He goes on to analyze popular Amis musician Suming Rupi (winner of the Golden Melody Award for Best Indigenous Language Album in 2011), who, along with Ado Kaliting Pacidal, is identified as an indigenous artist advancing popular conceptions of ‘indigenous music’ beyond the narrowly defined ‘world music’ trope by composing Amis-language music in contemporary genres (Hatfield 2011a, p. 11). As Suming states in a 2010 interview,
One stereotype about aboriginal music is that it’s a simple presentation of the human voice accompanied by no more than an acoustic guitar … As the development of aboriginal music continues, we shouldn’t always have to stay within the same restrictive rules. (Gao 2010)
The Contemporary Singing Voice
Many styles of song dictate a particular use of the voice. For example, the classical singing tradition requires a blended registration between upper and lower vocal registers to allow fluidity in the delivery of the complex melodic lines of opera and art song. This is very different to the singing voice of the contemporary singer–songwriter that is personally expressive, can be ‘untrained’ and often displays individual idiosyncrasies. In this context, the singing voice is used and processed in ways to convey expression and emotion. Broadly speaking, the contemporary singing voice typically displays a range of vocal colour (tone) (Hughes 2010). The ways in which a contemporary singer initiates sound (onset) and releases or finishes a vocal sound can be linked to the intensity of the embodied emotion, the vocal load and/or the technical ability of the singer. Often, the contemporary singer will use different modes of onset and release for expressive purposes. Notable distinctions in registration between the upper and lower vocal registers, and between clear and breathy tone, are often featured. Straight tone, with minimal vibrato, is also usual in contemporary singing.
When the voice combines with dialogue or lyrics, with other voices or is underscored with musical accompaniment and a range of instrumentation, communication and intent are further heightened. It is usual that the expressivity in the performer’s voice focuses intent, features dynamic control and contrast and provides emphasis through articulatory function, and in the twenty-first century, vocal communication can be further enhanced through technologies, vocal processing and purposeful production aesthetics (Hughes 2012a, 2012b).
Audiences can be drawn to vocal timbre and a uniqueness of sound, as it can be the sound of a voice that attracts attention. Listeners begin to identify with the voice as the ‘unique qualities of a singer’s voice make it relatively easy for us to identify a song as belonging to that particular artist’ (Kim & Whitman 2002, p. 64). It is also possible to display emotion in the voice without words. Frith (1996, p. 192) calls this ‘inarticulate articulacy’ and explains, in part, why listeners readily recognize and empathize with the ‘sound’ of sadness, fear, joy and pain expressed in and through the singing voice. Contemporary singers draw on the vocal expressivity to create a palette of vocal colours. This facilitates expressivity beyond what is written in a musical score.
The socio-cultural context of the singer–songwriter adds to the ways in which communication through the voice is achieved. Thurman and Welch (2000, xxiii) emphasize that singing involves the ‘neuropsychobiological’ self. In this context, vocal expressivity and techniques are highly relevant to cultural musicology and the singer–songwriter. However, the expressive capability of the contemporary singing voice also affords the singer–songwriter a means of expression that is not limited to traditional vocal timbre or nuance. Rather, the contemporary singing voice can be adapted to display a variety of artistic intents, emotions and colours.
Research Method
Whereas cultural musicology often discusses the context of music rather than the music itself, this investigation questions how the musical artifact itself represents the circumstances of its production. Namely, it examines how these artists represent their identities as indigenous singer–songwriters within the recorded work, with regard to context, vocal sound and arrangement, lyrical content, production technology, musical arrangement and style/s and artistic identity and cultural significance. The following aspects of the musical works have been identified as avenues for exploration:
Context: The work’s relationship, if any, to aboriginal traditions or identity. Vocal sound and arrangement: The use of the voice, including pitch, timbre, ornamentation and other aspects, to convey emotion and to express indigenous identity outside of conventional popular music vocalization methods. Lyrical content: The thematic content of lyrics and their relationship to traditional motifs or to more contemporary indigenous concerns. Production technology: The use of production process, including mixing, reverberation and application of other digital music effects, as tools of artistic expression. Musical arrangement and style/s: The musical styles used, including instrumentation, arrangement and choice of genre(s). Artistic identity and expression: The construction of artistic identity and overall narrative message of the musical work.
Ado Kaliting Pacidal
Ado Kaliting Pacidal is a member of the Amis tribe from the eastern region of Taiwan. Her name, meaning ‘we sing to make the gods happy’, was received from Amis elders (Pacidal 2012a). Pacidal was nominated for Best Aboriginal Singer for Sun and Moon in the Traditional Music Category for the 24th Golden Melody Awards (2013) held in Taiwan (Pure Taiwan 2013). She is also a television host and aboriginal activist, recently lobbying for indigenous people to re-adopt their given aboriginal names rather than their Chinese names (Iok-sin 2011), a practice only made legal in 1995. Pacidal is intent on maintaining her heritage and celebrates her tribal culture through her singing and songwriting. She writes and sings in the traditional Amis language and being ‘concerned about the threat her people face of having their culture disappear’ (Pacidal 2012a), uses her voice and her music to convey Amis legends, rites and beliefs.
Context
Musically, Pacidal is informed by memories of Amis singing from visiting villages with her ethnomusicologist father, as well as a youth listening to popular music and playing the piano (Cheng 2007). Her own songs are contemporary rather than traditional, as transplanting traditional Amis songs into a popular music context has proven problematic for several songwriters. As Hatfield (2011b, p. 8) outlines following discussion with Suming, traditional musics are viewed as ‘complete’ and are not improved by new arrangements; also, singing these songs with a non-traditional vocal timbre ‘damages them’. Pacidal similarly states that traditional music cannot be bettered, and that the current musical environment is more suited to writing contemporary songs (Cheng 2007). Rather than reworking existing traditional material, Pacidal uses the Amis language to reflect on modern life, stating, ‘These songs are a way for me to proclaim my constant dialogue with my tribe’ (Cheng 2007).
One of the most distinct features of Pacidal’s musical work in Sun and Moon is her constant reinforcement and communication of her ancestral Amis heritage. Sung in the Amis language, Pacidal’s songs situate Amis as a living language to be interpreted and understood, rather than as an artifact to be appreciated for its surface-level sound alone. The accompanying booklet to Sun and Moon (Pacidal 2012b) contains Chinese translations of these lyrics, emphasizing their importance as a communicative language rather than simply sonic texture. The photographic images used in the booklet situate Pacidal in her ancestral home, close to the ocean and to nature, wearing a contemporary white dress that accentuates her colourful adornments.
Vocal Sound and Arrangement
Pacidal’s vocals are a key part of Sun and Moon. The close relationship between singer–songwriters and emotive vocal delivery is emphasized by Brackett (2008, p. xii), who points out the ‘exotic’, ‘raw’ and ‘profoundly unique’ vocal characteristics of many singer–songwriters, whose lyrics are typically personal and introspective. Pacidal’s vocal delivery on several tracks, likewise, possesses heightened emotive qualities. The lyrics of ‘Kafokilan ko piharateng to riyar hato ikisoan’ (I don’t know if it’s the ocean I miss or if it’s you) concern themes of nature, loss and change, and the song includes both spoken and sung content. As Pacidal shifts from singing to speaking to singing, the emotive qualities of her voice are accentuated. This allows the listener to develop empathy with her vocal colour and unique voice characteristics.
Traditional Amis elements are also employed. In the vocal arrangement of several Sun and Moon tracks, call-and-response is evident; different types of call-and-response in Amis traditions are identified by Wang (n.d.) and form a key element in Amis singing. The chorus singing on Sun and Moon is contributed by male singers and is mostly in unison, rather than polyphonic, which is noted as a characteristic of the northern Amis (Kim 2003, p. 23). Some polyphonic singing can be heard towards the end of ‘Malatdaw’ (Gone forever), where Pacidal’s contemporary approach to singing overlays a chorus of background vocals. Pacidal’s vocal colour displays variations in delivery (for example, soft onsets of sounds and breathiness) as she laments the ‘knowledge of Amis people learned from our ancestors has disappeared, disappeared’ (English translation), and then the tone becomes clearer, using some glottal onsets and a louder dynamic. This use of voice provides a distinct contrast with the chorusing background vocals and the male spoken and sung vocal lines. Traditional Amis improvised vocables (for example, ho, hi and yan) are also used, for example, in ‘Radaja no o o’ (Oh Oh song).
Lyrical Content
The lyrics in Sun and Moon illustrate Pacidal’s relationship to her Amis heritage in several ways: as a system of beliefs and legends; as a way of life; and being Amis in modern-day Taiwan. The title and first track on Sun and Moon, ‘Cidal Falad’, relates an Amis legend about the reciprocity of the sun (actions) and moon (emotions), while ‘Cilangasan’ (Sacred mountain) likely refers to Dulan mountain, revered by the Amis as a divine presence (Stanley-Baker 2010). In ‘Afala’ (Shoulders), lyrics concern traditional Amis tribal structure and training at various age–grade levels, teaching youth about shouldering ‘village responsibilities’ (Pacidal 2012c). In this song, Pacidal’s lyrics are complemented by English-language rapping (by Freddy U.) expressing themes of perseverance and positivity. Similarly, in ‘Minokay a saopol’ (Feast of home), Pacidal discusses food and aromas that remind her and her friends of home. Other Sun and Moon subthemes relate to the experience of living between the city and one’s hometown. This is reflected in song titles such as ‘Fata’an’, which is the name of an Amis community. Other songs relate to the fear of losing one’s cultural heritage. Through lyrics such as ‘I look at you from afar/once in a sea worship prayer’ (English translation) in ‘Kafokilan ko piharateng to riyar hato ikisoan’, Pacidal adopts a distanced position, reflecting on the loss of past ways of life.
Production Technology
The approach to production on Sun and Moon varies depending on the genre of the song; however, the treatment of the voice adheres to singer–songwriter convention. Moore (2002, p. 211) points out the association of the singer–songwriter with intimacy and with closeness. In terms of sound production, this means that an ‘un-mediated’ approach is taken, using little obvious technological intervention, in order to create a sense of immediacy and authenticity (Moore 2002). Whereas pop vocals tend to be subjected to a range of effects, including digital reverberation, EQ and compression, Pacidal’s voice is relatively unaffected, which adds a sense of rawness and presence to her vocals. There is no audible pitch correction, adding to the sincerity of the vocal sound. Instruments are, for the most part, mixed fairly conventionally. However, the voice is noticeably foregrounded and placed above instruments in the mix, emphasizing the importance of vocal expression and of the sung content.
The use of environmental sound on certain tracks, such as waves and birdsong, adds a sense of place to the music; however, it also has greater significance within Amis culture. Tan (2008, p. 223) discusses the Amis concept of ladhiw, that is, the concept of song as a part of tradition and daily life, rather than an artifact meant to be recorded or performed. She proposes that the inclusion of ambient sounds in contemporary aboriginal recordings is an ethnographic element of traditional ladhiw (Tan 2008, p. 231), situating Amis music not as an artifact but as a cultural practice; a similar instance of this can be heard on the (Puyuma) Nanwan Sisters’ Honey Voices album, where drinking songs are accompanied by ‘recorded excerpts of a village party where revelers laugh and clink their rice wine glasses’ (Chen 2009).
Musical Arrangement and Style/s
Sun and Moon comprises songs of a wide range of genres. Around half can be classified as acoustic folk or within the conventional singer–songwriter genre; the remainder are pop, rock and dance, with Latin and Polynesian influences. A wide variety of instrumentation is used throughout Sun and Moon, and draws from a wide range of contemporary genres as well as Amis tradition. Common Amis instruments include bells and mouth harp (Himeno 1979, p. 154); bells can be heard in ‘Malatdaw’ (Gone forever) and the mouth harp in ‘Cidal Falad’. Many songs use electronic elements, such as electric bass and guitar, synthesizers, sampled drums and synthesized instruments; others are more acoustic, using piano, guitar and mouth harp. An album review explicitly picks up on these unusual instrument and genre choices, stating, ‘She engages in diverse experiments, sometimes using a drum machine. However, we prefer the pieces, thankfully the majority, where the mouth harp blends with guitar, percussion, and piano to serve as the background for simple melodies’ ((Taiwan Review 2013). This preference of acoustic modes of expression indicates some of the challenges of situating Amis song outside of a traditional or acoustic context.
Artistic Identity and Expression
Pacidal’s approach to expressing Amis heritage in a contemporary context draws on diverse genres, instruments and lyrics to convey a multifaceted representation of contemporary Amis life. Rather than presenting Amis traditions as a historical artifact, Pacidal emphasizes the place of the Amis language, musical instruments and culture in the present-day musical landscape. In Sun and Moon, Pacidal’s role as singer and songwriter extends further, as she is also credited as the album’s producer; it can therefore be assumed that the album as a whole is her own artistic statement. A final point worth considering is the Polynesian influence in several of Pacidal’s songs, and the depiction of Amis life (in lyrics, atmospheric sound and the cover image) as linked to island cultures and the sea. There is an existing similarity between Amis traditional music and music of Polynesia and Micronesia. For example, a 1970 article covering the Amis harvest festival notes that ‘song and dance have a South Seas flavor’ ((Taiwan Review 1970). Sun and Moon may also have been influenced by another 2012 Wind Music release, On a Gentle Island Breeze (Ho 2012), by Grammy Award-winning slack-key guitarist, Daniel Ho. This alignment with Polynesian musical elements portrays ‘islandness’ as well as a sense of exoticism, aligning the Amis with other island cultures, while asserting difference from Taiwan’s Han Chinese hegemony.
Ilid Kaolo
Ilid Kaolo, like Ado Kaliting Pacidal, is of Amis heritage. She is originally from Hualien County. Kaolo’s debut album, My Carefree Life, won several awards at Taiwan’s 23rd Golden Melody Awards in 2012; these included Best New Artist, Best Aboriginal Singer and Aboriginal Album of the Year (Associated Press Images 2012). Prior to My Carefree Life, Kaolo’s musical and performance career included the Formosa Aboriginal Song and Dance Troupe, Wild Fire Music and the Hohak Band (Kaolo 2011). In addition to being a singer–songwriter, she is an organic rice farmer or, as she describes it, ‘a musician who planted rice with her left hand and wrote songs with her right’ (Kaolo 2011). Kaolo also collaborated with Daniel Ho on the aforementioned album, On a Gentle Island Breeze (Huang 2013), combining Taiwanese aboriginal influences with ‘the Hawaiian sounds of ukulele, slack key guitar, and piano’ (CDbaby.com 2013).
Context
Although Kaolo states that ‘there are no big theories with my music’ (cited in Huang 2011), her musical career represents an innovative direction for Amis music. Kaolo’s international collaboration with Ho indicates contemporary Amis music as having a potential audience outside of Taiwan. This is highlighted by Frazier (2012) when he notes that Kaolo was awarded Best New Singer across all categories at the 2012 Golden Melody Awards. This recognition situates Kaolo, an indigenous singer–songwriter, within a popular mainstream context.
Vocal Sound and Arrangement
Like Sun and Moon, My Carefree Life is a contemporary singer–songwriter album, although in terms of musical and vocal style, it is markedly less eclectic. The album uses few acoustic instruments, such as piano, guitar and accordion, and possesses a more ‘live’ (as opposed to studio-produced) atmosphere. Kaolo’s voice is predominantly heard solo, notwithstanding the final track, ‘Guad’; no double-tracking or vocal harmonies are used, though she does sing with a chorus towards the end of ‘My Carefree Life’. As such, Kaolo’s voice and vocal tone alone are used to add variety to the delivery of lyrics. As an example, a marked tonal contrast can be discerned between the first two tracks. In ‘Clusters of Rice Plants’, the vocal colour is predominantly light and soft onsets are used to initiate many of the sounds. Meanwhile, the vocal colour in ‘My Carefree Life’ is brighter, with some hard onsets. As is typical for popular music singers, Kaolo uses a predominantly straight tone, with a touch of vibrato at the ends of some phrases. The final a cappella track, ‘Guad’, is noticeably different from the smooth and often intimate vocal delivery of much of My Carefree Life. With its clear vocal colour, contrapuntal melodic form and use of ho, hi, and yan vocables, the song draws on Amis musical traditions and features atmospheric sounds of waves and bells.
Lyrical Content
Returning to Hualien County after living in Taipei for three decades (Huang 2011), it was reportedly Kaolo’s return to her county and heritage that inspired ‘her to write songs in her mother tongue’ (Kaolo 2011). Of the 10 tracks on My Carefree Life, six are written in the Amis language; the remaining four are in Mandarin. According to Kaolo, the title track, ‘My Carefree Life’, is a song about her ‘memory of the agricultural life in Hualien … watching the breeze blowing at the rice harvest’ (cited in Huang 2011). The agricultural and environmental theme of much of My Carefree Life continues with Kaolo’s questioning in ‘Sparkling, Shining Stars’ as to ‘who was it that took the fish we caught … that muddied the rivers … that made the mountain collapse … that trod on the land?’ (English translation). This is continued on the concluding track, ‘Guad’, where the lyrics discuss the planting and harvesting of rice. While much of Kaolo’s lyrical content focuses on nature, agriculture and rice farming, she also touches on the disappointment women face in failed romance. In ‘Enchanting Eyes’ (a Mandarin song), she encourages ‘urban’ (Kaolo 2011) women to be strong and to hold their heads high (Huang 2011).
Production Technology
The production of My Carefree Life is minimal and unobtrusive, adding to the ‘live’ atmosphere of the album, as previously mentioned. Few effects are used, with only minimal reverb and equalization apparent. Kaolo is a prolific performer, providing her own instrumental accompaniment on guitar; the recorded album therefore does not add ornamentation, with the exception of the sampled sounds in ‘Guad’, which could not be provided in a live musical context. Vocals are always foregrounded in the mix and placed in the centre, while instruments are lower in the mix, for example, in ‘Dreams’, which accompanies the voice with guitar and flute.
Musical Arrangement and Style/s
My Carefree Life contains songs which merge folk, jazz and bossa nova (Huang 2011). The exception is the traditional-style a cappella melody of ‘Guad’, as mentioned previously. Songs such as ‘Sparkling, Shining Stars’ and ‘Clusters of Rice Plants’ are folk oriented, relying principally on guitar, while ‘Rest’ and ‘Buenas Noches Mi Sol’ use bossa nova instrumentation of piano, guitar, double bass, congas and strings, as well as accordion. More upbeat songs, such as ‘My Carefree Life’ and ‘The City’, incorporate horns and ukulele. This diverse instrumentation, and Kaolo’s use of musical styles ranging from folk and jazz to bossa nova, further extends the definition of Amis music and song as, apart from ‘Guad’, no traditional instruments are used. Kaolo predominantly represents Amis identity through language and lyrics, situating her experience and expression within contemporary musical idioms.
Artistic Identity and Expression
The central focus of My Carefree Life is Kaolo’s position as an organic rice farmer, drawing on both her experiences of modern-day Taiwanese city life and agricultural, rural concerns. In particular, Kaolo has recently become a spokesperson for environmental rights, from a specifically Amis perspective. Kaolo’s close relationship with the land and agriculture is also seen in the visual image accompanying the liner notes of her lying on the ground (Kaolo 2011). The themes of nature in Kaolo’s work therefore do not only reinforce the importance of nature in the Amis tradition; they also have contemporary relevance. Overdevelopment and construction has become a concern along the eastern coast of Taiwan and among the Amis community, particularly around Taitung County. The relation of music to environmental and aboriginal activism can be seen in the recent Fudafudak seaside music festival (featuring Kaolo as a performer), which was held to protest the construction of a resort and privatization of a local beach (Frazier 2012); the concert was preceded by an aboriginal protest (Lee 2012). The contemporary relevance of these issues to the Amis community necessitates a musical response which is likewise contemporary. By using modern-day musical forms such as folk, rather than being delimited to traditional forms of expression, Kaolo is able to respond musically in a way which is relevant to both topical concerns and present-day listeners.
Conclusion
While both Pacidal and Kaolo use the contemporary singer–songwriter mode of expression to convey their cultural heritage, they do so in appreciably different ways. Their vocal sounds and their artistic identities lie outside the dominant hegemonies of the traditional aboriginal voice and the Mandopop voice. The uniqueness of their singing voices shows they are not conforming to one particular tradition, but rather they combine eclectic and different musical influences. This article has explored the symbiotic relationship between popular music idioms, the contemporary singing voice and cultural heritage. It is through this relationship that space is created for re-telling the past, while developing an accessible, livable and sustainable culture. In particular, music and voice are used as a means to construct cultural representation in a contemporary setting. Both Pacidal and Kaolo have chosen to represent their aboriginality through the personal expressiveness afforded by popular music, creating contemporary sonic landscapes that convey their Amis heritage. As singer–songwriters, their artifacts serve the meta-needs of their social and cultural being. Their music highlights that indigenous-language popular musicians need to negotiate a range of issues. On the one hand, aboriginal themes in pop music can be viewed as trivializing stereotypical concepts of ‘nativeness’, whereas strict adherence to tradition means that the artist is bound to a limited range of expression. Artists also may consider their relation to conventions of mainstream Mandarin pop music, and to Taiwanese-language song. In bringing indigenous-language songs to popular contexts, these singer–songwriters are required to balance an attention to their heritage with the stylistic features of contemporary music, to create music that values indigenous themes while being relevant in today’s musical environment.