Abstract
The aim of this study was to broaden development communication on how it deals with building the capacity of people to live meaningful and expressive lives. We examined users of Facebook and Instagram who exhibit body dissatisfaction beliefs and eating disorder (ED) behaviours. An important objective was to examine the prevalence of body dissatisfaction among young adult users of social media. Another objective was to examine if body dissatisfaction among these users is associated with ED behaviours. The target population for the study constituted students at a midsize university in the United States. A self-administered web survey was used to collect information about individuals’ use of social media and its relation to body dissatisfaction, and consequently the prediction of ED behaviours. Correlational analyses were performed to answer the research question and test H2. Hierarchical regression was run to test H1. Regressions corresponding to the path model were run to test H3a and H3b. This study showed the prevalence of body dissatisfaction among users of social media, an association between body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating behaviours, and further provided empirical evidence that attitude, norms and behaviour control exert an influence on intentions, which then influence disordered eating behaviour. The need for the present study was precisely to establish such a theory-based premise. This study then demonstrated how social media may be used as sites for development communication to combat and mitigate unhealthy physical appearance-based feelings and ideas, and potentially stop them from developing into more serious problems such as EDs.
Introduction
Severe concern about body image is recognised as one of the fundamentals for eating disorders (ED) and thinness ideal. Fairburn and Walsh (2002) define ED as ‘a persistent disturbance of eating behaviors or behavior intended to control weight, which significantly impairs physical health or psychosocial functioning’. Studies have suggested that body dissatisfaction may be caused or influenced by several socio-cultural factors including looking up to ideal images or models and celebrities in various media forums; internalisation of various concepts of being attractive from mainstream society. It is important to recognise how young females will respond to universal messages associated with body image as well as body dissatisfaction concerns displayed in various media, especially social media. The reach of social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram have been impeccable in recent years. Social media are preferred over the traditional mass media because of various reasons including affordability, visually appealing graphics and designs, openness in conversations as well as self-disclosure and higher agency. In addition, people can build personal connection with the technology by sharing their life with the world almost instantly and thereby increasing interactivity (Eveland, 2003; Perloff, 2014; Sundar et al., 2013).
Tiggemann and Slater (2013) concluded that the more time that certain individuals spend on specific sites online, the more are the chances of developing a drive for thinness, having a thin body ideal as well as allotting more time towards scrutinising one’s body. According to Chrisler et al. (2013), among younger adults, through ‘appearance-focused Facebook conversations, picture sharing, and fashion-focused tweets’, social media applies a strong impact on the advancements of thinness ideals and body dissatisfaction (as cited in Perloff, 2014). Further, the authors also found that younger Facebook users recorded more body image concerns than the non-users. Therefore, social media may have the possibility to adversely affect the user/viewer and the image that the viewer portrays in the society; the reason being that young adults strive to achieve the ideal body type as portrayed in several forms of media (Kaźmierczak et al., 2013; Tiggemann, 2014; Walker et al., 2015).
Social Media Use and Body Dissatisfaction
Despite acknowledging the effects of social media on body dissatisfaction issues, only a few studies have assessed the content of ED blogs and portals as well as effects of the Internet on body dissatisfaction issues (Chrisler et al., 2013; Perloff, 2014; Tiggemann & Slater, 2013). Norris et. al (2006) analysed pro-anorexia (pro-ana) websites, the ones that encourage anorexic behaviour and lifestyle around them, and found that they have a few common themes and messages wherein religion-oriented metaphors, lifestyle narratives and ‘thinspiration’ (they are the stimulating photos and quotes that aim to assist as persuaders for weight loss) were recurrent. Few of most prevailing themes comprised controlling themes, messages on strength and flawlessness. Motivational quotes such as ‘nothing tastes as good as skinny feels’, ‘it’s not a diet, it’s a lifestyle’ along with pictures of extremely thin celebrities constituted the core of the content of these websites (Norris et al., 2006). Another key feature in the content of social media vis-a-vis body image and body styles is that people usually expose themselves selectively to the media materials whose content they find appealing because they complement their own attitudes and behaviours (Slater, 2007; Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). This might be a reason that vulnerable young adults seek resort in the content displayed on the pro-ana websites. Norris et al. (2006) also revealed that the webmasters in the reviews were female and almost all the inputs to messages and contact lists were from young women. There are some pro-bulimia/pro-mia websites too which may instigate certain risky consequences, especially on younger females (Levine & Chapman, 2011). Keeping in contact by accessing these websites might lead to various short-term adverse effects, such as low self-esteem and decrease in perception of one’s own body image (Bardone-Cone & Cass, 2006, 2007).
Kalodner (1997) mentioned that there is a negative influence of media representations of thin models on college women (without ED too) even though no such influence occurs for male college students. This shows that media play an important role in influencing younger female adults. Walker et al. (2015) stated that the online presence of young female adults, especially on Facebook and Instagram, online comparison of their physical appearance as well as online messages directly or indirectly talking about negative aspect of one’s body (termed as ‘online fat talk’), are all positively related with disordered eating behaviour. This is because the availability of social media is immaculate due to the reach and ability to edit, copy and share posts anytime and anywhere without any restrictions. People like, comment and share pictures of thin-idealised images of men and women that a young adult starts idealising and liking on the page without anyone noticing. The intimate setting of sharing or following an ideal image also makes it difficult to understand or detect the disorder. Family members often might not even know what their child is suffering from unless they start showing symptoms of ED. Other research showed that if an individual received negative comments on Facebook in relation to personal disclosure matters, they were more likely to report an ED behaviour in the next few weeks. Mabe et al. (2014) extended the findings listed above by claiming that social media sites, such as Facebook (and now Instagram), unite two crucial elements that impact the possibility for ED: media and peers. They also found that Facebook use was related with the ‘maintenance of weight/shape concerns’. Therefore, it is possible that social media, especially Facebook and Instagram, contribute towards a negative body image which can further lead to body dissatisfaction.
Development Communication: A Conceptual and Theoretical Anchor
Development communication (devcom) deals with the function and place of media and communication practices in guided social change. Most of the models and theories relating to development in areas such as social work, critical education, subaltern studies and community organisation have dealt with the problems and challenges of socio-economic development, especially in the Third World. However, the devcom field has broadened its ambit and today it examines geographical areas and individuals in a global context, especially those who may be oppressed in some way (Melkote & Steeves, 2015). Anthony Giddens, a critical scholar of globalisation and change, developed a model for social justice in directed change by conceptualising social justice as freedom from inequality (emancipatory politics) and freedom to live an efficient and significant life as an expressive human being (politics of self-actualisation) (Giddens, 1990; Melkote & Steeves, 2015). Melkote and Steeves (2015) elaborate further the politics of self-actualisation as freedom or opportunities to develop people’s capacities and capabilities and serve to protect them from ‘universalising and normalising’ forces unleashed by the media, dominant interests and other groups. This provides a conceptual and theoretical segue for this study to examine the major phenomenon relating to body dissatisfaction and ED in the post-industrial and post-development society of the USA, which affects many young adults in a negative way leading to potentially serious effects on their physical/mental health and well-being. Body dissatisfaction, a construct of negative body image, among apparently healthy young women has been attributed to the universal and normalising messages embedded in a media discourse of the ‘thin body ideal’.
With the advent of the twenty-first century, the dispute of unequal progress and marginalisation of masses and communities across the world continues to be a problem (Milanovic, 2011; Munk, 2013; Stiglitz, 2012). Scholars, scientists, activist citizens and others have advocated to restructure the outcome of directed change in order to lower inequality between people on core issues. Gradually, the notion of development for attaining social justice is discovering support among scholars, administrators and other professionals. While the concept of social justice is appreciated, its operationalisation has continued to be a challenge. Melkote and Steeves (2015) posit that social justice outcomes should eradicate the social, economic and political laws, regulations and policies that support inequality. They also added that the outcomes towards social justice should be able to generate, maintain and develop access to resources for all individuals to live a meaningful life. This includes boosting the capability and capacity of individuals and societies to live a healthy and expressive life. This in turn reflects the importance of empowerment of individuals through social movements, media advocacy and other participatory actions to bring about directed social change with justice as the chief anchor (Melkote & Steeves, 2015, p. 66).
The idea of physical beauty as thin and sleek is being normalised as well as desired in our society, which in turn implies the concept of normalisation; it reinforces the argument that media messages are being subtly pushed on to vulnerable sections of society, in this case younger females. The images of thin models and celebrities influence many young women and impact their concept of attractiveness and self-evaluation. Internalisation of a thin body ideal could lead to severe body dissatisfaction issues (Stice, 2001). On the other hand, the long-term effects would be that the capacity of these young females to operate and to work as normal functioning members of society is being hurt.
The aim of this study is to enlarge devcom as an area of study on how it deals with constructing the capability of members of society to live a meaningful and expressive life. In this study, we examine users of Facebook, Instagram and other related sites who exhibit body dissatisfaction beliefs as well as disordered eating behaviours. If it is empirically supported, could this social problem be addressed by development communication campaigns and techniques? We will argue and demonstrate that social media content can be tailored to build capacity and capability of young adults by appealing to them to adopt healthy attitudes and healthy lifestyles. Perloff (2014) has contributed to this area by providing details of how social media have the potential of persuading young adults into building positive body image attitudes, visions and lifestyles.
Objectives of the Study
Do the media influence their users, especially young adult females, in a negative construction of their body image, which may then lead to unhealthy eating habits? In this research, a crucial objective was to assess the occurrence of body dissatisfaction among young adult users of social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Pinterest. Another objective was to inspect if body dissatisfaction among these users is related with eating disordered behaviours, which is a potentially negative effect on the physical/mental health and well-being of an individual.
Based on a review of literature, the following research question (RQ) was posited:
Body Dissatisfaction
Previous research in this area indicates that there is no direct relationship between mere use of the media and body dissatisfaction (Botta, 1999; Perloff, 2014). Several research studies (e.g., Slater 2007; Valkenburg & Peter, 2013) and theoretical models such as the uses and gratifications perspective suggest that effects of media involve multifaceted interactions between media content and individual characteristics of users such as needs and social–psychological factors. Research has shown that certain social and psychological characteristics of users are crucial in terms of putting young women at chance of developing body dissatisfaction such as low self-esteem, internalisation of the thinness ideal and centrality of appearance to self-worth (Crowther & Williams, 2011; Mischner et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2012; Noser & Zeigler-Hill, 2014). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
H1: Among users of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest), body dissatisfaction levels will be predicted by low levels of self-esteem, high levels of internalisation of the thinness ideal, higher centrality of appearance to self-worth and the female gender.
Body Dissatisfaction and ED
Body dissatisfaction may be one of the important factors contributing towards the risk of the spread and flourishment of ED. It is a part of the negative mind set related with one’s body weight and ED. Additional research suggests that young women who are active social media users with individual vulnerability factors, such as low levels of self-esteem, high levels of internalisation of the thinness ideal, centrality of appearance to self-worth and body dissatisfaction image disturbances, would be prone to content dealing with pro-eating, starving or other diet-related behaviours, and particularly likely to seek out pro-ED sites (Perloff, 2014; Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). This could result in ED pathologies. This leads us to propose the following hypothesis:
H2: Among young adult female users of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest), higher body dissatisfaction levels will be positively associated with greater ED behaviours.
Social–Psychological Factors
While body dissatisfaction could be associated with ED behaviours, other researchers have cautioned that influences on disordered eating behaviours are complex and depend on many social–psychological factors (Smolak & Thompson, 2009). Therefore, the suggestion is that the association between body dissatisfaction and ED is far from being a simple and direct relationship. Perloff (2014, p. 368) also emphasises that ‘body dissatisfaction effects on EDs are complex; increases in body dissatisfaction do not necessarily cause ED problems. Instead EDs and disordered eating attitudes are a function of a host of complex social, emotional and personality processes’ (also see Arroyo & Segrin, 2013; Crowther & Williams, 2011; Delinsky, 2011). This led us to employ a comprehensive theoretical model used in health communication, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), to screen for ED behaviours.
Ajzen’s TPB and ED Behaviour
Pickett et al. (2012) applied TPB successfully as an analytical tool for the diagnosis of self-reported EDs. TPB suggests that a behaviour of an individual can be anticipated formed on attitudes, perceived behavioural control, subjective norms as well as intentions (see Figure 1).
In combination, attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norm and perception of behavioural control indicate the formation of intention to perform behaviour. Intention is thus assumed to be the immediate antecedent of behaviour because if the attitude and norms are high, higher is the perceived control. Additionally, the TPB showed that intentions significantly predicted self-reported EDs of individuals (also see Povey et al., 2000).
Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H3a: Among young adult users of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest), favourable attitudes, favourable subjective norms and greater perceived behavioural control will predict stronger intentions (to perform self-reported EDed behaviour). H3b: Among young adult users of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr and Pinterest), stronger intentions (to perform the behaviour), favourable attitudes, favourable subjective norms and greater perceived behavioural control will predict self-reported ED behaviours.
Explanation of Terms/Concepts Used
Self-esteem describes global self-worth by measuring both positive and negative feelings about the self.
Thinness ideal reflects both an ardent wish to lose weight as well as a fear of weight gain.
Centrality of appearance to self-worth is a construct describing one’s self-worth, which is centrally dependent on physical appearance.
Body dissatisfaction is a construct of negative body image.
Attitudes in the TPB model constitute the beliefs about the outcomes of certain behaviours influenced by assessments of these beliefs.
Subjective norms consist of inspirations resulting from a person’s evaluation of social costs and resulting profits from performing the behaviour. ‘It is the combined expectation from relevant individuals or groups, … perceptions of salient others’ expectations about performing or not performing the target behavior’ (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Miller, 2005).
Perceived behavioural control describes the prospect that an individual has in controlling an outcome (Ajzen, 1991).
Behavioural intention describes the subjective probability of indulging in an act.
Disordered eating behaviours would consist of the prevalence of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating and other self-reported diet-related pathologies.
Methodology
Population and Sampling
The target population for the study constituted students (N = 14,099) at a midsize university in the United States. Young college female adults are prone to having a negative influence from the representation of thin ideal models on media leading to comparison as well as exchange of body-shaming or online fat talks further contributing towards EDs (Kalodner, 1997; Walker et al., 2015). The attitudes, beliefs, social norms and intentions of these young females as well as other social–psychological variables could be an appropriate baseline for enquiry of their lifestyle habits leading to development of EDs and help in assessment of their level of body dissatisfaction.
A judgement sampling design was used. The sample size was set at 370 participants and the researchers received responses from 365 undergraduate students at the university. A self-administered web survey was used to collect information about individuals’ use of social media and its relation to body dissatisfaction, and consequently the prediction of ED behaviours.
Measurement of the Variables
The variables were operationalised in the survey questionnaire into a number of scales/factors, namely subjective norms relating to food and thinness, peer norms relating to food and thinness, intention to involve in severe dietary behaviour, intention to participate in behaviour leading to anorexia and bulimia, intention to display self-control around food, engaging in strict dietary behaviour, engaging in anorexic and bulimic behaviour, centrality of appearance to self-esteem, centrality of appearance to self-worth, attitudes, perceived behavioural control, self-esteem, drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. All scales were subjected to a reliability analysis using the Cronbach alpha statistic. Scales with Cronbach alpha scores of 0.70 or higher were retained for data analysis.
Analysis and Results
Correlational analyses were performed to answer the RQ, hierarchical regression was run to test H1 where the body dissatisfaction variable was regressed on the gender variable, which was loaded in the first stage, and self-esteem, thinness ideal and centrality of appearance were loaded at the second stage. Correlations were run to test H2. Regressions corresponding to the path model (Bohrnstedt & Knoke, 1988) were run to test H3a and H3b. First, behaviour intention was regressed on attitude, subjective norms and behavioural control. Next, disordered eating behaviour was regressed on behavioural intention, attitude, subjective norm and behaviour control.
Results and Discussion
Research Question
RQ examined if greater exposure to social media sites is associated with higher body dissatisfaction. The correlation between body dissatisfaction and the number of hours the respondents spent per average day surfing social media sites was statistically significant (r = 0.16, p < .01). This showed that higher the amount of hours consumed on social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest), higher was the body dissatisfaction among young adults.
Significance of the Finding
Previous studies have also found a relationship between number of hours spent on social media and body dissatisfaction. Tiggemann and Slater (2013) concluded that the more time that certain individuals spent on specific sites on the Internet, the higher were the chances of developing a drive for thinness, having a thin body ideal as well as allotting more time towards scrutinising one’s body. This result is in conjunction with the findings of our study. In addition, according to Chrisler et al. (2013), among younger adults, through ‘appearance-focused Facebook conversations, picture sharing, and fashion-focused tweets,’ present-day social media apply a strong impact on the increase of ideal body image (as cited in Perloff, 2014). Further, the authors also found that younger Facebook users recorded more body image concerns than the non-users. Therefore, it can be portrayed that media in general and social media have the possibility to adversely affect the user and the image that the user portrays in the society, the reason being that young adults strive to achieve the ideal body type as portrayed in several forms of media (Hummel & Smith, 2015; Kaźmierczak et al., 2013; Tiggemann, 2014; Walker et al., 2015).
Hypothesis 1 (H1)
Body dissatisfaction was the dependent variable to test the prediction of self-esteem, drive for thinness, centrality of appearance to self-esteem and female gender. The model was significant [F(4,336) = 99.791, p < .001] showing that the hypothesis was supported. The predictor variables explained 54.3% (R2 = 0.543) of the observed variability in the dependent variable of body dissatisfaction, which is an impressive finding.
Significance of the Finding
Higher body dissatisfaction is a part of the negative mind set related with one’s body weight and EDs. Research has showed that certain social and psychological characteristics of users are crucial in terms of putting young women at chance of evolving greater body dissatisfaction, such as shallow self-esteem, embodying the idea of thin body and appearance being central to self-worth (Crowther & Williams, 2011; Mischner et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2012; Noser & Zeigler-Hill, 2014). Our study further reinforced this important relationship. Additional research points out the dangers faced by young women who are active social media users with individual vulnerability factors such as small levels of self-esteem, elevated levels of internalisation of the thin body ideal, centrality of appearance to self-worth and body dissatisfaction image disturbances include a behavioural tendency to select content dealing with diet-related behaviours, and they are likely to seek out pro-ED sites (Perloff, 2014;).
This finding is crucial because it brings out the role of self-esteem and drive for thinness affecting body dissatisfaction. There have been prior studies on effect of self-esteem and drive for thinness on body dissatisfaction but not many communication campaigns on social media have addressed these concerns. The health communication campaign messages designed in the future will have to keep in consideration the social and psychological factors, such as individual’s low level of self-esteem as well as excessive level of drive for thinness in association with body dissatisfaction. The failure to address these might explain the ineffectiveness of social media campaigns, on the issue of body image and/or EDs, to reach young adults. This finding offers a chance for communication campaigns to expand young adults’ beliefs on the importance of having high self-esteem and less drive for thinness and thereby increase the chances of creating a positive body image.
Hypothesis 2 (H2)
The results showed that there was a significant relationship amongst body dissatisfaction and the two dimensions of disordered eating behaviour, namely (a) engaging in strict dietary behaviour (r = 0.31, p < .001; R2 = 9.5%) and (b) engaging in anorexic and bulimic behaviour (r = 0.34, p < .001; R2 = 11.8%). Higher scores on ‘engaging in strict dietary behaviour’ and ‘engaging in anorexic and bulimic behaviour’ were significantly correlated with higher body dissatisfaction levels.
Significance of the Finding
This finding is crucial because it points out the role of body dissatisfaction as an important construct affecting disordered eating behaviour (Perloff, 2014; Smolak & Thompson, 2009). This study suggests that body dissatisfaction is one of the important factors contributing towards the risk of the spread and flourishment of EDs. As proved in the first hypothesis, body dissatisfaction is projected by negative self-esteem, and higher internalisation of thin body ideal. Social and psychological factors such as self-esteem and ambition for thinness affect dissatisfaction which in turn significantly forecast ED behaviours (Crowther & Williams, 2011; Mischner et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2012; Noser & Zeigler-Hill, 2014).
Hypothesis 3a (H3a)
Intention to engage in strict dietary behaviour was the dependent variable to test the prediction of attitude, subjective norms relating to food and thinness, peer standards linking to food and thinness and perceived behavioural control. The model was significant [F (4,332) = 10.817, p < .001, R2 = 11.5%] indicating that the hypothesis was supported.
Intention to engage in anorexic and bulimic behaviour was the other dependent variable to test the prediction of attitude, subjective norms relating to food and thinness, peer norms relating to food and thinness and perceived behavioural control. The model was significant [F (4,331) = 15.623, p < .001, R2 = 15.9%] indicating that the hypothesis was supported.
Significance of the Finding
As per the discussion in the prior hypothesis and as Perloff (2014, p. 368) emphasised, effects of body dissatisfaction on EDs are intricate, however growth in body dissatisfaction is not essentially a cause of ED. Rather, EDs and messy eating attitudes lead to complicated socio-emotional and personality practices (Arroyo & Segrin, 2013; Crowther & Williams, 2011; Delinsky, 2011). This led us to employ a comprehensive theoretical model used in health communication, the TPB to screen for ED behaviours. TPB suggests that behaviour of a person can be anticipated on the basis of attitudes, perceived behavioural control, subjective norms and intents. Ajzen (1991) mentions that one’s intentions to fulfil a behaviour is one of the important features in the TPB model.
The implication of the findings for this hypothesis is that it reinforced the results in the contributing literature on ED and body dissatisfaction research. The findings reinforced that positive attitude, favourable subjective norms and greater perceived behavioural control are important contributors to predict stronger intention to perform the desired behaviour. These are must-have components in health communication campaigns.
Hypothesis 3b (H3b)
Engaging in strict dietary behaviour was the dependent variable to test the prediction of intention to participate in severe dietary behaviour, intent to involve in anorexic and bulimic conduct, subjective norms relating to food and thinness, peer norms connecting to thinness and food, perceived behaviour control and attitude. The model was significant [F(6,325) = 48.530, p < .001, R2 = 47.3%]. The predictor variables explained 47.3% of the observed variability in the dependent variable of engaging in disordered eating behaviour, which is an impressive finding.
Engaging in anorexic and bulimic behaviour was the other dependent variable to test the prediction of intention to engage in strict diets, intent to involve in anorexic and bulimic conduct, subjective norms relating to food and thinness, peer standards relating to thinness and food, perceived behaviour control and attitude. The model was significant [F (6,321) = 42.978, p < .001, R2 = 44.5%]. Again, in this case, the predictor variables explained 44.5% of the observed variability in the dependent variable of engaging in disordered eating behaviour, which is an impressive finding.
Significance of the Findings
The findings suggested that there is a clear relationship between intention to engage and engaging in strict diet as well as engaging in behaviour related to anorexia bulimia. Consistent with Ajzen’s TPB model, Pickett et al. (2012) showed that attitudes (towards the behaviour), subjective norms and perceived behavioural control projected intentions. Also, the results indicated that intentions considerably anticipated self-reported EDs of individuals (see Povey et al., 2000). These outcomes will be essential to the future health communication campaigns for accepting the significance of intentions along with other TPB variables to forecast self-reported behaviours.
Conclusion
This study has showed the occurrence of body discontent amongst social media users such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Pinterest. An association between body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating behaviours has provided empirical evidence that attitude, norms and behaviour control exert an influence on intentions, which then influence disordered eating behaviour. Empirical evidence, as examined and described in this study, strongly suggests that the idea of physical beauty as thin and sleek is being normalised in our society. It reinforces the argument that media messages are being pushed on to vulnerable sections of society, in this case young females (Anderson-Fye, 2011). Internalisation of a thin body ideal could lead to severe body dissatisfaction issues (Stice, 2001). The long-term effects could be that the capacity of many younger females to operate and to work as normal functioning members of society is being hurt. They are not lacking anything in terms of physical well-being, but because of the normalisation of the thinness ideal social media are hurting their capabilities and capacities to function effectively.
Implications for Development Communication
Ideally, theory-based research studies should serve as anchors to first understand the relationships between ‘appearance-contingent self-worth’ (Crocker et al., 2003) and unhealthy eating habits, and second, examine other factors associated with or which influence unhealthy behaviours. Such studies could prove heuristic in suggesting ameliorative strategies for media to assist youngsters, mainly those with predisposing exposure to adopt healthy body images and contest pressures to engage in dysfunctional practices of disordered consumption (Perloff, 2014, p. 372). The need for the present study was precisely to establish such a theory-based premise. So, how could the social media be used as sites for development communication (devcom) to combat and mitigate unhealthy physical appearance-based feelings and ideas, and potentially stop them from developing into more serious problems such as EDs?
In public communication campaigns, legacy media such as radio and television as well as other mass media have been the traditional vehicles used to achieve healthy and prosocial behaviours. While public health campaigns utilising legacy media have been important in educating people in areas such as family planning to limit the size of the family (Rogers, 1973), in destigmatisation of leprosy (Krishnatray, 1996), encouraging safe-sex practices to ward off HIV/AIDS (Melkote, Muppidi, & Goswami, 2000) and a host of other issues, Perloff (2014) suggested that social media campaigns by sites such as Facebook and Twitter have far greater potential to influence the attitudes and beliefs among younger people because of their ubiquity in their lives and the interactive nature of these media. In addition, Atkin and Rice (2012) posited that new/digital media are increasingly used in message dissemination for health campaigns due to their increased interactivity, personalisation, reach and low cost. Baran and Davis (2015) mentioned that a social medium such as Facebook is being utilised to disseminate safe-sex ideas and practices among high school and college students. In a related study, Bull et al. (2012) conveyed different messages to varied recipients of Facebook and ‘those who received news feed messages about sexual health, HIV testing, and healthy sexual relationships in a weekly feature called Just/Us showed better rates of condom use’ (Baran & Davis, 2015, p. 355).
The data in this study show that more positive attitudes about body shape are associated with greater intentions to eat right. Taking a cue from this, social media vehicles could be utilised to tweak attitudes, especially of those with body dissatisfaction vulnerabilities, with empowering messages and strategies about their body image by stressing healthy bodies rather than body shapes and encouraging the adoption of a healthy outlook and lifestyle (Levine & Harrison, 2009; Perloff, 2014). In an experimental trial (Stice et al., 2012), girls suffering from body dissatisfaction issues were assigned through a process of randomisation into three distinct conditions: an ED prevention program, which utilised dissonance-inducing activities that discouraged thin-ideal internalisation; a second group, which was assigned to a prevention program promoting healthy weight management and a third group, which was placed in an expressive-writing control condition, or an assessment-only control condition. Girls who were assigned to the dissonance condition showed significantly lesser ED risk elements and bulimic symptoms than girls in the other situations. The effects were not permanent as they faded over 6-month and 12-month follow-ups, yet the dissonance condition exhibited ‘significantly lower binge eating and obesity onset and reduced service utilization through 12-month follow-up, suggesting that both interventions have public health potential’ (Stice et al., 2012, p. 263). Such empirical evidence shows that empowering messages about body image could affect attitudes among young women and girls and wean them from thin-ideal internalisation. Particularly with reference to communicative actions and strategies, the study mentioned above offers support for communication strategies that encourage young women and girls to be positive about their body shape or image. Perloff (2014) described a successful media campaign telling young girls that they were strong, healthy and beautiful (also see Hartocollis, 2013). Such messages positively impacted the self-esteem of vulnerable young people who regarded self-worth as analogous with body image satisfaction (Noser & Zeigler-Hill, 2014; Seligman, 2002). Crocker et al. (2003) stated that as it feels good to determine that one is worthy and feels immoral to conclude that one is insignificant, people are particularly motivated to attain success and prevent failure in self-worth domains (Crocker et al., 2003, p. 905). Proactive and interactive posts on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram could have maximum effect on younger women and girls from developing and sustaining self-defeating beliefs and attitudes about self-worth based solely on physical appearance (Perloff, 2014). Scholars caution that such interventions must begin at a fairly young age, preferably during preadolescence, to influence girls to not adopt a sense of self by focusing only on how they look or the shape of their bodies.
Social media are essentially multimedia platforms. They can harness the whole repertoire of online media technologies, such as audio, video, graphics and text, to create convincing persuasive messages for their younger audiences on self-worth and healthy outlook on life by utilising peer models (Sundar, 2008). This would make the communication strategy more participative and more believable since younger users relate well with their peers. Perloff (2014) and Eagly et al. (1978) alluded to this as ‘knowledge bias’ where the audience member may not trust the communicator such as an expert in a media campaign. Instead, when communicators are chosen from the peer group, especially those who do not suffer from the knowledge bias, there is more credibility in the message (Melkote et al., 2000). For example, Fee and Krieger (1993), addressing the issue of AIDS, reason that the particular truths of those truthfully affected by the epidemic comprise of authentic understanding and are valued for supporting the issues as condensed by a medical expert (Melkote & Steeves, 2015). In another example, Bull et al. (2012) decided to utilise News Feed (on Facebook) rather than prescriptions from medical experts through formal social networking sites because there is less proof to suggest that majorly the youth seek out and actively engage with (medical) societies on Facebook (p. 472). This suggests that messages sent out through RSS feeds which allow users to stay up to date with the content on their preferred websites, rather than medical experts or other advocates, provide credible means to disseminate messages to youth users of social media.
This study has invoked and tested social–psychological models such as Ajzen’s model of the Theory of Planned Behavior (1991), which includes social norms as important influences on behaviour. Social norms reference the expectations, intentions to conform and perceptions about the expectations from peers to performing/not performing a behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Research has shown that campaigns establishing new social norms, which demystify common notions of drinking behaviour on issues such as binge drinking of alcoholic beverages, have shown some success in reducing the practice (Godbold & Pfau, 2000). A similar tactic could be utilised in social media messages by connecting users to peers introducing and discussing new social norms that do not encourage body surveillance or discourage the thinness ideal. Users can be connected seamlessly to their peers through selfies, simultaneous conversations, the use of the ‘like’ buttons and other such techniques to create a bandwagon effect. If content on social media suggests that thin body is not a normal, universal, accepted idea, then young females might feel less pressure to adopt thinness ideal (Perloff, 2014, p. 373).
Conceptual Model
The overarching objective of this study is to widen devcom as a ground of study and practice by concentrating on how it could deal with constructing the capacity of individuals to live effective, significant and meaningful lives.
In Figure 2, we have adapted the comprehensive social justice in development model articulated by Melkote and Steeves (2015) to specify outcomes in development/change as well as operationalise principal communicative actions to achieve the outcomes. The outcome of development/change as shown in the model is to construct or expand/endure choices and prospects, capacities and capabilities for people/communities to lead efficient, expressive and significant lives (Melkote & Steeves, 2015). This puts a special onus on communicative actions and strategies to achieve the development outcome. In this model, individuals and/or communities are regarded as active agents who are not entirely dependent on experts or social entities that have usually played the roles of benefactors and protectors. Therefore, devcom strategies are articulated as the creation, expansion and/or sustaining the agency of individuals and communities in directed change. The new role of devcom must be one that inspires and follows an agent-oriented vision of individuals and communities involved in the process of positively focused social change (Melkote & Steeves, 2015, p. 69). The model offers a list of the principal devcom actions by which devcom strategies may be realised. Under empowerment-oriented communication actions, we visualise young women to be ultimately in charge of their body shape or image perceptions, which is positive about their self-image.
We support participatory communication approaches where the recipients of initiatives and projects play a dynamic role in message creation and designing. This is addressed under social mobilisation by expanding/sustaining public domains and communication, participation and debate at local and other contexts. This will aid in the formation and declaration of new voices, actors, beliefs and practices, which may have greater credibility and effectiveness with the intended audiences. This implies that campaigns focused on young adult women will be further effective if they chose people who have themselves suffered and overcome ED (Perloff, 2014, p. 373). Media mobilisation and networking as articulated in the model are important vehicles for establishing and strengthening social norms compatible with healthy practices and outlooks.
In conclusion, the model sketched above is conceptualised largely and is beneficial for its exploratory value as well as outlining a critical dialogue of the place and role of media and communicative programs in directed social change. The goal is to articulate outcomes which deliver reliable opportunities and choices for people and communities to empower themselves to live significant and expressive lives and not be vulnerable to mainstream normalising messages and attitudes from mass or social media vehicles.
Limitations and Recommendations for the Future
This study, as any other research, has certain limitations. The judgement/purposive sample used does not permit generalisation of the results to the target population. The R2 values in the testing of H2 and H3a are low. Since this study is exploratory and used a small non-probability sample, we could not obtain higher values for R2. So, a recommendation for a future research study is that a probability sampling design be used so that the findings of the study may be generalised to a larger population. Data emanating from such studies would be desirable to base several population-wide health communication campaigns.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.